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Infect Immun, July 1998, p. 3436-3442, Vol. 66, No. 7
Department of Animal and Food Sciences,
Received 8 December 1997/Returned for modification 28 January
1998/Accepted 21 April 1998
A second cytadhesin-like protein, MGC2, was identified in the avian
respiratory pathogen Mycoplasma gallisepticum. The
912-nucleotide mgc2 gene encodes a 32.6-kDa protein with
40.9 and 31.4% identity with the M. pneumoniae P30 and
M. genitalium P32 cytadhesins, respectively. Functional
studies with reverse transcription-PCR, immunoblotting, double-sided
immunogold labeling, and attachment inhibition assays demonstrated
homology to the human mycoplasmal P30 and P32 cytadhesins. These
findings suggest that there is a family of cytadhesin genes conserved
among pathogenic mycoplasmas infecting widely divergent hosts.
The genus Mycoplasma is
unique among prokaryotes because the member species lack cell walls,
use UGA to encode tryptophan, and utilize cholesterol in their cell
membranes (40). They have been described as minimal cells
due to their unusually small size and streamlined genetics, with the
smallest recorded genomes of self-replicating organisms (15, 21,
35). Pathogenic mycoplasmas are highly specialized, successfully
exploiting respiratory and urinogenital tract niches in a wide variety
of vertebrates. Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a significant
pathogen of domestic poultry and wild birds. In chickens, the agent
produces chronic respiratory disease, while ovaduct infection causes
lowered egg production and allows transovarial transmission
(49).
M. gallisepticum shares similar pathogenic mechanisms with
two human mycoplasmas, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and
Mycoplasma genitalium (10, 30). These mycoplasmas
exhibit a flask-shaped morphology characterized by a unipolar terminal
organelle, or bleb, that is involved in mucosal attachment and gliding
motility (7, 25, 46). The tip organelle of M. pneumoniae has been extensively studied and functions through the
interactions of cytadhesins, cytadhesin accessory proteins, and
elements of a primitive intracellular cytoskeleton (26).
We previously reported the sequence and characterization of MGC1, the
M. gallisepticum homolog of M. pneumoniae P1,
M. genitalium MgPa, and the Mycoplasma pirum
cytadhesins (24, 45). A second cytadhesin has been
identified in both M. pneumoniae and M. genitalium. Attenuated class II variants of M. pneumoniae are hemadsorption negative and lack a 30-kDa protein
designated P30 (4, 5, 27). Revertants expressing P30
reacquire virulence (28). P30 was also found to be membrane
associated and localized on the tip organelle (4, 5).
Furthermore, a monoclonal antibody raised against P30 blocked M. pneumoniae attachment, suggesting its importance in cytadherence
(36). Additional analysis of P30 mutants has suggested the
importance of a repeated proline-rich amino acid domain in
cytadherence, virulence, and postinfection autoimmunity (12,
31). The genes encoding P30 and the M. genitalium homolog, P32, have been sequenced and mapped (11, 15, 22, 41).
Cloning procedures and DNA sequencing.
The MGC1 gene is
located within plasmid pMG25, which contains an 8.3-kb fragment of the
M. gallisepticum genome cloned into Bluescript vector KSII
(24). The 1.3-kb region upstream from mgc1 was
subcloned from pMG25 into KSII as two PstI fragments and
sequenced with Sequenase version 2.0 (U.S. Biochemical, Cleveland, Ohio) according to the manufacturer's instructions. We designed specific primers to sequence the two subclones and the PstI
junction in pMG25. Oligonucleotide primers were purchased from Ransom
Hill (La Jolla, Calif.). The nucleotide sequence was analyzed with the
Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer Group
(13).
0019-9567/98/$04.00+0
Copyright © 1998, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
Characterization of MGC2, a Mycoplasma
gallisepticum Cytadhesin with Homology to the Mycoplasma
pneumoniae 30-Kilodalton Protein P30 and Mycoplasma
genitalium P32
ABSTRACT
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3, 1 rule for identifying signal sequence
cleavage sites (47), a possible signal sequence cleavage
site exists after Thr31 or Ser32. A Kyte-Doolittle hydrophilicity plot
of MGC2 (averaged over a 7-aa window) shows a second highly hydrophobic
region, consistent with the presence of a transmembrane domain, from
Phe63 to Ala89. The carboxy-terminal two-thirds of the protein (aa 102 to 304) is rich in proline (20%) and glycine (15%) residues.
View larger version (75K):
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FIG. 1.
Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences of MGC2,
M. pneumoniae P30 (10), and M. genitalium P32 (15, 36) with the GAP alignment program
from the Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer
Group (13). Residues conserved in all three proteins are
shaded in black, while sequences shared by two of the three mycoplasmas
are shaded in gray; dashes represent gaps.
View larger version (51K):
[in a new window]
FIG. 2.
Amino acid hydrophilicity plots of MGC2, M. pneumoniae P30, and M. genitalium P32 made with the
Kyte-Doolittle algorithm averaged over a 7-aa window (MacVector version
4.1; IBI Kodak, New Haven, Conn.). Positive values indicate increased
hydrophilicity, while negative numbers represent increased
hydrophobicity. The ordinate values represent the amino acid
residues.
Transcriptional analysis and organization of the cytadhesin
operons.
The transcription initiation site of mgc1, the
first gene of an approximately 8-kb operon, is located within the
mgc2 coding region (24). Immediately upstream
from mgc2 is a 67-nt A+T-rich (83.6%) region. Although two
Escherichia coli consensus 10 promoter sequences were
found 38 (TATTAT) and 100 nt (TATAAT) from the ATG initiation codon of mgc2, and a possible 35
TTGAAA promoter sequence is found 112 nt from the start
site, no consensus Shine-Delgarno sequence was located. Primer
extension was unable to identify a transcriptional start site for
mgc2 within the region, and Northern blot analysis suggests
that the gene is part of a larger transcript (data not shown). Further
characterization of the complex regulatory relationship between these
two M. gallisepticum cytadhesin-containing operons is
currently under way.
RT-PCR. To further investigate mgc2 functionality, reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) was performed. Log-phase M. gallisepticum S6 cells were pelleted by centrifugation at 10,000 × g for 30 min. The cell pellet was extracted with Trizol reagent (Gibco BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.). The aqueous layer, containing RNA, was layered on a 4 M cesium chloride cushion and centrifuged at 90,000 × g for 16 h at 17°C. The RNA pellet was extracted with phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (29:28:1), ethanol precipitated, and resuspended in diethyl pyrocarbonate-treated water. All RNA samples were subsequently treated with RNase-free DNase (Promega Biotech, Madison, Wis.) for 30 min at 37°C and then phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol extracted as described above. One microgram of M. gallisepticum RNA was RNase treated for use as an RT-PCR negative control. Reverse transcription was conducted with a GeneAmp RNA PCR kit (Perkin-Elmer, Foster City, Calif.).
Two mgc2 primers, located at nucleotide positions 144 to 174 and 359 to 341, were used in the PCR. PCR products were electrophoresed on a 1.5% agarose gel and transferred to a nylon membrane for Southern analysis. The nylon blot was incubated in a solution of 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 6× SSC (1× SSC is 0.15 M NaCl plus 0.015 M sodium citrate [pH 7.0]), 5× Denhardt's solution (1× Denhardt's solution is 0.02% Ficoll, 0.2% polyvinyl pyrrolidone, 0.02% bovine serum albumin), and 200 µg of salmon sperm DNA/ml for 2 h at 50°C. A 32P-labeled mgc2 oligonucleotide probe corresponding to nt 198 to 235 was added, and incubation at 50°C was continued for 12 h. The membrane was washed twice in 0.2× SSC-0.1% SDS for 10 min at room temperature, twice in 0.2× SSC-0.1% SDS for 30 min at 50°C, and once in 0.1× SSC for 30 min at 50°C. As controls for the analysis, we used previously described primers to amplify by RT-PCR a portion of the M. gallisepticum elongation factor (tuf) gene (20). As an additional control, primers at nucleotide positions 2346 to 2372 and 2940 to 2916 (24) were used to RT-PCR amplify a portion of the mgc1 gene. RT-PCR with total M. gallisepticum RNA confirmed the transcription of mgc2. An mgc2-specific RT-PCR product of the predicted size, 211 bp, was identified (Fig. 3A). The controls, portions of the M. gallisepticum tuf and mgc1 transcripts, were amplified by RT-PCR (210 and 580 bp, respectively). No PCR products were observed in samples treated with RNase. Southern analysis was done with a 32P-labeled probe corresponding to nt 198 to 215 of mgc2 (Fig. 3B). The mgc2 primer hybridized only to the mgc2 RT-PCR product.
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Site-directed mutagenesis and expression cloning of MGC2. In order to further characterize the mgc2 gene product, we prepared recombinant MGC2 antigen for use in antiserum production. This antiserum was used in immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, immunoelectron microscopy, and attachment inhibition assays. This required site-directed mutagenesis to alter a single TGA (tryptophan codon for amino acid position 62) in the MGC2 gene to a TGG codon with the Altered Sites II site-directed mutagenesis kit (Promega) and the mutagenesis primer 5' CCCGAACCTTGGTTTTACCA 3' (the altered codon is underlined). Mutants containing the altered tryptophan codon were confirmed by sequence analysis. MGC2 was overexpressed in E. coli SG13009(pRep4) cells as a six histidine-maltose binding protein-MGC2 fusion protein (Qiagen, Chatsworth, Calif.). The fusion protein was identified as a 75,000-Da band on a 12% SDS polyacrylamide gel after purification on a Talon nickel affinity chromatography column (Clonetech, Palo Alto, Calif.).
Production of anti-MGC2 antiserum and MGC2 detection. The portion of the SDS polyacrylamide gel corresponding to the migration position of the fusion protein was excised and homogenized with an equal volume of Freund's complete adjuvant. New Zealand White rabbits were injected subcutaneously with the preparation as previously described (24).
Immunoprecipitations were performed as described by Krause and Baseman (29). Adherent M. gallisepticum S6 cultures, grown in 75-cm2 polystyrene tissue culture flasks containing Frey broth, were washed with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; 120 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM Na2PO4, pH 7.4). Adherent cells were then disrupted in solubilization buffer (35 mM Tris [pH 8.2], 0.25 M NaCl, 1.6% deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, and 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride). Cellular debris was removed by centrifugation at 60,000 × g for 30 min. Rabbit anti-MGC2-specific antibody (20 µl) was added to 200 µl of solubilized M. gallisepticum cells and incubated on ice for 1 h. Twenty microliters of Protein G Plus-Protein A agarose (Calbiochem, La Jolla, Calif.) was added to the mixture, and incubation was continued at 4°C for 1 h with gentle mixing. The immunoprecipitate was collected by centrifugation at 17,000 × g for 1 min and washed three times by repeated centrifugation in solubilization buffer. Following the last centrifugation, the precipitate was resuspended in a solution of 3% mercaptoethanol, 3% SDS, 0.3% bromophenol blue, and 10% glycerol loading buffer, boiled for 5 min, and centrifuged for 5 min at 17,000 × g. The supernatant was loaded onto an SDS-10% polyacrylamide gel. After electrophoretic separation, the proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose for Western blot analysis as previously described (24). A 1:100 dilution of rabbit anti-MGC2 antiserum and a 1:2,000 dilution of goat anti-rabbit alkaline phosphatase-conjugated antibody (Bio-Rad, Richmond, Calif.) were used in the analysis. The polyvalent rabbit antiserum detected MGC2 from early-log-phase M. gallisepticum cultures (Fig. 4). The rabbit anti-MGC2 antiserum precipitated a 38-kDa protein (Fig. 4, lane 1), while the preinoculation rabbit serum control did not detect this protein (Fig. 4, lane 2). Additional bands found in the immunoblot with both preinoculation and anti-MGC2 serum treatments were expected, since alkaline phosphatase-labeled goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G reacts with the heavy and light chains of rabbit anti-MGC2 antibodies. In addition, both rabbit and goat antibodies could react in immunoblots via their respective Fc fragments with proteins G (30 to 35 kDa) and A (42 kDa). Because of the importance of insuring the specificity of rabbit anti-MGC2 for subsequent experiments, we infected chickens with M. gallisepticum to obtain preinoculation and 4- and 6-week postinfection serum samples. These sera were individually reacted with solubilized M. gallisepticum cells, immunoprecipitated, and subjected to Western blotting as described above. All the chickens from the 4-week (n = 8) and 6-week (n = 8) bleedings showed the 38-kDa band in immunoblots developed with rabbit anti-MGC2 and conjugated goat anti-rabbit antisera. None of the preinoculation and uninfected control sera (n = 8) precipitated the 38-kDa band (data not shown).
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Immunoelectron microscopy. To determine the cellular topology of MGC2, double-sided immunogold labeling was conducted with thin sections of M. gallisepticum cells. M. gallisepticum cells were grown to early log phase in Frey broth (pH 7.0), fixed in equal volumes of Frey broth and 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.2 M sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7.2), and harvested by centrifugation. The resulting pellet was resuspended in 2% low-melting-point agarose, rinsed in buffer (twice for 15 min each time), dehydrated in a graded series of ethanol, and embedded in HM20 resin (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Fort Washington, Pa.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The double-sided labeling technique was based on the procedures described for lectin probes and actin (6, 9). Ultrathin sections were examined and photographed at ×20,000 magnification with a Zeiss CEM 902 transmission electron microscope.
Flask-shaped cells, cut through different longitudinal planes, were clearly visible in the electron micrographs (Fig. 5). Various cross sections through the bleb were also visible. Immunogold labeling was localized on the terminal bleb organelle in sections treated with anti-MGC2 antiserum (Fig. 5B). Gold particles were not visible in the preimmune serum-treated sections (Fig. 5A). As is typical of the flask-shaped pathogenic mycoplasmas, M. gallisepticum attachment to host cells is mediated by the terminal bleb organelle, which permits an intimate association with the host cell membrane (46). In M. pneumoniae and M. genitalium, cytadhesin proteins are concentrated on this structure (26). We demonstrated through immunogold labeling that MGC2 appears to be highly concentrated on the tip of the terminal bleb. In similar experiments, MGC1 was found to be more widely distributed across the bleb (data not shown).
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Attachment inhibition studies. Preliminary experiments were conducted to evaluate the use of chicken embryo fibroblast (CEF) cells in subsequent attachment inhibition assays. Erythrocytes were not used because M. gallisepticum has separate hemagglutinating gene products, distinct from those for MGC1 and MGC2 (3, 20, 32-34). CEF monolayers were treated with neuraminidase at 2.5, 5, and 10 mU for 1 h at 37°C before the application of radioactivity-labeled M. gallisepticum cells. After vigorous washing, M. gallisepticum cell-associated radioactivity was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than that of untreated CEF cells, indicating that the sialic acid glycoprotein receptors found on erythrocytes are present on CEFs (2, 18, 19). Neuraminidase treatments reduced binding by 55 to 65% at M. gallisepticum concentrations ranging from 5.5 × 107 to 7.3 × 107 CFU, a result similar to the 58% reduction of M. gallisepticum binding after neuraminidase treatment of the MRC-5 human lung fibroblast cell line (17).
The involvement of MGC2 in attachment to host cell receptors was investigated with the previously described rabbit anti-MGC2 antiserum. Mixtures of antiserum and radiolabeled M. gallisepticum cells were added to CEF cells. After incubation, reduced CEF-associated radioactivity was used to quantitate attachment inhibition. M. gallisepticum S6 cells, grown to mid-log phase in Frey broth (pH 6.7), were pelleted at 10,000 × g for 2 min, washed once in PBS, and resuspended in Hanks' balanced salt solution (Gibco BRL, Grand Island, N.Y.) containing 10% methionine-free porcine serum. Prior to being radiolabeled, the cultures were filtered through an 0.8-µm-pore-size membrane to remove clumped cells. M. gallisepticum cells were then labeled with 40 µCi of [35S]methionine (Amersham, Arlington Heights, Ill.) per 108 CFU for 3 h at 37°C with shaking. Radiolabeled cells were washed three times with Hanks' balanced salt solution and resuspended in M199 medium (Gibco). CEFs were prepared as previously described (42) and cultured on 96-well tissue culture plates (Corning Costar Corporation, Cambridge, Mass.). The CEFs, grown to confluence in M199 medium containing 5% fetal calf serum, were then washed twice with PBS. Initial titrations of labeled cells and CEFs were used to optimize conditions. The attachment inhibition assay used a 1:10 anti-MGC2 antibody dilution and, as a control, a 1:10 dilution of MGC2 preinoculation rabbit serum, reacted with eight labeled mycoplasma concentrations ranging from 5 × 106 to 40 × 106 CFU. Antibody and mycoplasmas in 200-µl aliquots were incubated for 1 h at 37°C with gentle mixing, added to the washed CEFs, and incubated for an additional 1 h at 37°C. An antibody-free control was also reacted with labeled mycoplasmas diluted only with M199. Following incubation, CEFs with attached M. gallisepticum cells were rigorously washed three times with PBS. Each mycoplasma-and-serum treatment was replicated three times. Individual wells were separated and placed in ScintiVerse (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, N.J.) and counted to determine cell-bound radioactivity. After subtraction of background radioactivity, cell-bound counts were analyzed by two-way analysis of variance, with pairwise comparisons determined by the method of Tukey (43). We also determined that rabbit anti-MGC2 was not mycoplasmacidal or inhibitory of metabolic processes required for attachment, since undiluted antibody did not produce growth or metabolic inhibition by the previously described assays (8, 44). The preinoculation serum and labeled cells without antibody showed a near-linear increase in attachment with increasing numbers of M. gallisepticum CFU (Fig. 6). Pairwise treatment analysis determined that there was significant attachment inhibition (P < 0.01) of anti-MGC2 antibody-treated mycoplasmas at concentrations ranging from 20 × 106 to 30 × 106 CFU, which resulted in 37 to 48% inhibition. The lack of complete inhibition of attachment is likely due to the presence of one or more additional cytadhesins. In parallel attachment inhibition assays conducted under the assay conditions described above, rabbit anti-MGC1 antiserum caused 52 to 60% attachment inhibition compared to controls (P < 0.0001) with M. gallisepticum cells at 5 × 106 to 40 × 106 CFU (data not shown).
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phenotypes were identified (1). The HA+
phenotypes expressed proteins p30, p48, p50, and p80, while p72 was
only expressed in the HA phenotype. The p69 protein,
expressed in both HA+ and HA phenotypes, was
the only protein identified as the product of a member of the pMGA
family of genes in Western blotting. It has been suggested that the HA
phase variation may be important in immune evasion (1, 33).
Taken together, these data point to a complex regulation of HA. The
relationship of proteins involved in HA and hemagglutination with MGC1
and MGC2 cytadhesins remains unclear, since antisera directed at
hemagglutinating and hemadsorbing proteins have not been used to
examine attachment inhibition in cells other than erythrocytes. To
address this issue, we examined the hemagglutination inhibition (HI)
properties of rabbit antisera specific for MGC1 and MGC2 by using
chicken erythrocytes in the routine HI diagnostic test (49).
These high-titered antisera react in immunoblots at 1:1,000 (MGC1) and
1:2,500 (MGC2) dilutions. However, no HI activity was shown by these
sera, suggesting that they do not bind to M. gallisepticum
hemagglutinins.
In summary, the data presented in this study provides compelling
evidence that MGC2 is the homolog of M. pneumoniae P30 and M. genitalium P32, including 40.9 and 31.4% amino acid
homology between MGC2 and the P30 and P32 proteins, respectively. The
MGC2 protein has a predicted mass of 32.7 kDa and migrates at an
apparent size of 38 kDa. By double-sided immunogold labeling, MGC2,
like P30 and P32, is localized on the terminal bleb. Finally, antiserum directed at MGC2 inhibited attachment to CEF cells. The initial attachment of M. gallisepticum to host tissues appears to
involve sets of genes closely related to those found in the human
mycoplasma pathogens. The fact that mycoplasma pathogens from widely
divergent hosts utilize homologous cytadhesins suggests the importance
of these membrane proteins to successful exploitation of the host mucosal niche.
Nucleotide sequence accession number. The nucleotide sequence discussed in this paper was submitted to GenBank under accession no. U23842.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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This work was supported by USDA NRI CGP grant 93-03408 to J.E.D.
We thank Robin Morgan for her critical reading of the manuscript.
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FOOTNOTES |
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* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19717-1303. Phone: (302) 831-2524. Fax: (302) 831-3651. E-mail: John.Dohms{at}mvs.udel.edu.
Paper no. 1645 in the Journal Series of the Delaware Agricultural
Experiment Station.
Editor: P. E. Orndorff
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),
rabbit preinoculation serum diluted 1:10 (
), or rabbit anti-MGC2
antiserum diluted 1:10 (*). The values represent means (± standard
errors) of three replicate treatments. a, Significant
(P < 0.01) difference from the corresponding treatment
without antibody; b, significant difference (P < 0.01)
from corresponding treatments reacted with preinoculation rabbit serum.
The numbers in parentheses indicate the percent inhibition from the
preinoculation serum {100