INTRODUCTION

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and methods Results Discussion References

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of gram-negative bacteria induces a diverse array of biologic responses in mammalian cells and initiates inflammatory, complement, and coagulation cascades. These responses may be an important defense against invading gram-negative bacteria, but when excessive, such responses to LPS may devolve into sepsis (7). When a given amount of LPS is administered in the presence of other agonists, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and gamma interferon (IFN-), there may be enhanced lethality (14). IFN- also plays an important role in the lethal response to LPS, particularly in mediating the lethal Shwartzman reaction (17). In contrast, IFN- is a key cytokine in host defenses against obligate and facultative intracellular organisms (23) and enhances the ability of peritoneal macrophages and Kupffer cells to phagocytose and kill virulent Escherichia coli (6). Thus, IFN- may participate in both the beneficial and detrimental effects of LPS. A better understanding of the mechanisms by which such sensitizing agents enhance LPS activity may therefore provide potential targets for the limitation of LPS-initiated responses. Potential mechanisms of LPS synergy with cytokines such as IFN- (16) and IL-1 (4, 37, 38) include upregulation of putative LPS receptors on cells by cytokines (39), induction of autocrine and paracrine responses by cytokines (22), or enhanced expression of downstream response factor genes (26).

LPS activates the NF-B family of transcription factors (28). In resting cells, NF-B is complexed in the cytoplasm by an inhibitory protein, IB. Signal-induced phosphorylation and subsequent proteolytic degradation of IB frees NF-B from such complexes. Following this, NF-B rapidly translocates to the nucleus, binds to the B element of target genes, and activates the expression of previously quiescent genes (reviewed in reference 2). In contrast, IFN- employs the JAK-STAT pathway for its signal transduction (10). Binding of IFN- to its receptor results in recruitment of two Janus tyrosine kinases, JAK1 and JAK2, which induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of a dormant cytoplasmic protein, signal-transducing activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). STAT1 then migrates to the nucleus and binds to the IFN--activated site of cellular genes whose products mediate IFN- effects (10). Although they activate different sets of genes, IFN- and LPS both are known to induce IFN- regulatory factor 1, which is essential for induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (19). It is not known, however, whether the synergistic effect of LPS and IFN- may occur at a more proximal site than the induction of common sets of genes. In the present study, we determined whether IFN-, which is known to enhance LPS lethality, alters the intracellular signalling responses of the LPS-initiated NF-B pathway. Here, we show that pretreatment of macrophages with IFN- augments DNA binding of NF-B in response to LPS and increases the expression of the gene for iNOS, as well as the production of nitric oxide. In turn, LPS affects the IFN- signal transduction pathway by increasing the activation of STAT1 binding to DNA. Finally, we present evidence that the interaction between IFN- and LPS not only occurs at the signal transduction level but may involve the induction of factors which act in an autocrine fashion.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and methods Results Discussion References

Cell culture and reagents. Murine macrophage RAW 264.7 (RAW) cells were grown in Dulbecco modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, 2.4 mM L-glutamine, 60-U/ml penicillin, 60-U/ml streptomycin, 0.55 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, and 40 mM HEPES buffer. Cells were maintained for no longer than 6 weeks to avoid unresponsiveness to either IFN- or LPS. Cells were incubated with recombinant murine IFN- (Genzyme) and/or LPS from E. coli O55:B5 (Sigma) as described in Results. Monoclonal anti-TNF- and anti-IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) antibodies (Genzyme) were used at a concentration of 2.5 µg/ml.

Gene expression analyses. (i) Transfection and luciferase assays. Cells (0.5 × 10⁶) were mixed with 5 µg of plasmid DNA carrying the palindromic IFN response element (pIRE)-regulated luciferase gene (21), 2 µg of a -actin--galactosidase reporter (internal control), and 13 µg of salmon sperm DNA as the carrier. DNA was electroporated, and cells were rested for 14 h prior to stimulation with the indicated agents. Cells were treated with IFN- (50 U/ml) and/or LPS (100 ng/ml) and incubated for an additional 10 h. Equal amounts of cell extracts (50 µg) from individual samples were assayed for luciferase activity (1). Luciferase activity was normalized to -galactosidase activity to correct for variations in transfection efficiency.

(ii) EMSAs. Preparation of nuclear and cytosolic extracts (11) and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) were performed as described previously. B and pIRE oligonucleotides (21-23) were labeled with ³²P as described earlier (40). Double-stranded wild-type B (5' gaagcttGGGGACTCTCCCtttg 3') and mutant B (5' gaagcttGGCGACTCTCCCtttg 3') oligonucleotides were employed in these studies. Only the sense strand sequences are shown. In each case, the complementary antisense strand was annealed to the sense strand prior to the experiments. The core NF-B binding site is in italicized uppercase letters. The mutated base is underlined. The pIRE oligonucleotide was based on the sequence present in the ICSBP promoter (21). Each experiment was repeated at least three times.

(iii) Western blotting. For Western blotting experiments, equal amounts of cytosolic protein (20 µg) were subjected to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and blotted onto a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (0.45 µm; Millipore), and IB was detected by using rabbit anti-IB immunoglobulin G (IgG; Santa Cruz) after blocking of nonspecific binding sites with 0.2% Tween 20 and 1% bovine serum albumin in Dulbecco phosphate-buffered saline. After washing, bound rabbit anti-IB IgG was detected with horseradish peroxidase-labeled goat anti-rabbit IgG (Sigma) and subsequent enhanced chemiluminescence (Pierce).

	RESULTS

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and methods Results Discussion References

Pretreatment with IFN- augments DNA binding of NF-B in response to LPS. Because LPS and IFN- exert their effects through the induction of cellular genes, we measured the induction of iNOS mRNA by reverse transcription-PCR. Consistent with previous data (15, 25, 31), iNOS mRNA was robustly induced when cells were cotreated with IFN- and LPS (data not shown). In addition, elevation of the iNOS mRNA level correlated with an increase in its enzyme activity (data not shown). Since LPS is known to activate DNA binding of NF-B and the iNOS promoter contains a functional B site, we investigated whether pretreatment of macrophages with IFN- augmented the NF-B binding to DNA. RAW cells were pretreated with either IFN- or nothing for 2 h and subsequently stimulated with various amounts of LPS. Nuclear extracts were then prepared after 30 min of LPS stimulation and assessed for the amount of NF-B by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) using a ³²P-labeled B oligonucleotide based on the sequences between 85 and 76 of the murine iNOS promoter (13, 43). In untreated cells, there was no activation of DNA binding of NF-B (Fig. 1A, lane 1). A typical binding pattern was shown in Fig. 1. Formation of two complexes was detected with this probe. The upper band was recognized by antibodies raised against the p65 and p50 subunits of NF-B (data not presented), which supershifted these complexes. The lower band was supershifted by antibodies specific to the p50 subunit. LPS alone caused a slight activation of NF-B binding at higher concentrations (Fig. 1A, lanes 3 and 5), consistent with the residual increase of iNOS mRNA and the slight increase in NOS activity observed with LPS alone (data not shown). IFN- alone did not induce the DNA binding of NF-B (lane 2). Preincubation of cells with IFN-, however, strongly augmented the LPS-initiated NF-B binding in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 1A, lanes 4, 6, and 8). This increase correlated with the enhanced expression of iNOS mRNA and nitrite production observed under these conditions (data not shown).

View larger version (36K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 1.   (A) Pretreatment with IFN- enhances the DNA binding activity of NF-B in response to LPS. RAW 264.7 cells were preincubated with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 2 h and then stimulated with the indicated amounts of LPS for 30 min. Nuclear extracts (20 µg) were then analyzed by EMSA using a 32P-labeled oligonucleotide specific for an NF-B site of the murine iNOS promoter. (B) Kinetics of activation of NF-B by LPS. Cells were incubated with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 2 h before addition of LPS (100 ng/ml; indicated by the horizontal arrows; the values above the arrows indicate the lengths of LPS treatment in minutes). After additional incubation with LPS for the indicated times, nuclear extracts were prepared and analyzed by EMSA using a 32P-labeled oligonucleotide based on a functional B site of the murine iNOS promoter. Only the region corresponding to NF-B binding is shown. The arrowheads indicate specific NF-B complexes. (C) Specific DNA binding of NF-B. All of the extracts are from cells stimulated with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 2 h and with LPS (100 ng/ml) for 20 min (similar to panel B, lane 8). Extracts in lane 1 were not pretreated with an unlabeled oligonucleotide before analysis with a 32P-labeled oligonucleotide. Nuclear extracts were preincubated with 25-, 50-, and 100-fold molar excesses of unlabeled oligonucleotides. The wild-type (Wt; lanes 2 to 4) and mutant (Mut; lanes 5 to 7) oligonucleotides used are described in Materials and Methods.

IFN- promotes rapid IB- degradation. In the light of the above observations, we examined whether enhancement of NF-B activation was due to accelerated degradation of IB in IFN--primed macrophages. Unstimulated or IFN-pretreated (2 h) cells were treated with LPS for 30 min, and cytosolic extracts were prepared in the presence of a protease inhibitor (phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) to avoid nonspecific degradation of IB. The same amount of cytosolic protein from each sample was then separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and then subjected to Western blotting. As shown in Fig. 2A (top), some IB- degradation occurred in the absence of IFN- priming when cells were stimulated with a high dose of LPS (compare lanes 4 and 1). IFN- per se did not cause detectable degradation of IB- (lane 2) compared to unstimulated cells (lane 1). However, priming of the cells with IFN- strongly enhanced LPS-regulated IB- degradation (Fig. 2A, lanes 3 and 5). Interestingly, priming with IFN- or treatment with LPS did not affect the degradation of IB- under these conditions (Fig. 2A, bottom). These observations prompted us to examine whether IB degradation was accelerated in the presence of IFN-. Indeed, in IFN--primed cells, LPS induced rapid degradation of IB- in a time-dependent manner until 20 min (Fig. 2B, top, lanes 5, 7, 9, and 11). Although LPS alone caused degradation of IB- (lanes 4, 6, 8, and 10), it was consistently lower than what was observed in IFN--primed cells. After 30 min, IB- levels rose again, consistent with the previously described autoregulation of NF-B/IB- (30). Indeed, when more NF-B was activated (LPS and IFN-), more IB- was resynthesized (compare lanes 12 and 13). In agreement with the data shown in Fig. 2A, levels of IB- were unaffected under these conditions (Fig. 2B, bottom).

View larger version (48K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 2.   (A) Pretreatment with IFN- enhances the dose-dependent degradation of IB- in response to LPS. RAW cells were treated as described in the legend to Fig. 1, and cytosolic extracts were prepared in the presence of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. They were analyzed for the presence of IB- and IB- by Western blotting as described in Materials and Methods. (B) Kinetics of IB- degradation in RAW cells induced by LPS with or without priming by IFN-. Cells were treated as described in the legend to Fig. 1. Cytosolic extracts were prepared at the indicated times after addition of LPS and analyzed as described above. The values above the arrows in panel B indicate the times (minutes) of LPS exposure. A minus or plus sign indicates the absence or presence, respectively, of the given agent during incubation.

Effect of protein synthesis inhibition on IFN- priming. Previous reports demonstrated a synergistic effect of IFN- and LPS on nitric oxide production in murine macrophages (15, 25). This effect was thought to be due to the enhanced expression of iNOS mRNA requiring de novo protein synthesis. However, the requirement of de novo protein synthesis during IFN- priming was not demonstrated (25). Since IFN- alone did not promote IB- degradation (Fig. 2A, lane 2, and 2B, lane 3) and IFN- priming augmented the LPS-induced IB degradation, we investigated whether IFN- induced a protein factor that was responsible for rapid activation of NF-B. Therefore, we examined the effect of the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) on the priming of IFN-. As shown in Fig. 3A, 30 min of IFN- priming strongly enhanced LPS activated NF-B binding (compare lanes 5 and 3). CHX alone did not induce NF-B binding (lane 2), and it did not inhibit LPS-inducible NF-B binding (lane 4). However, CHX blocked the hyperactivated NF-B binding elicited by treatment with IFN- and LPS (Fig. 3A, lane 6). These data suggest that an IFN--stimulated, rapidly synthesized protein may contribute to the priming observed with IFN-.

View larger version (40K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 3.   (A) Effect of CHX on induction of the DNA binding of NF-B by LPS with or without pretreatment with IFN-. RAW 264.7 cells were primed with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 30 min in the presence or absence of CHX (25 µg/ml) (lanes 4 and 5). LPS (100 ng/ml) was then added, and the mixture was incubated for 20 min. Nuclear extracts were prepared and analyzed by EMSA as described in the legend to Fig. 1. (B) Effect of antibodies against TNF- or IL-1R on the induction of DNA binding of NF-B by LPS with or without priming by IFN-. An anti-TNF- antibody (2.5 µg/ml) and/or an anti-IL-1R antibody (2.5 µg/ml) were added to the culture 30 min before priming with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 60 min. LPS (100 ng/ml) was then added for an additional 20 min before the preparation of nuclear extracts. Extracts were then analyzed by EMSA as described in the legend to Fig. 1. (C) Synergistic activation of NF-B by TNF- or IL-1 in association with IFN- (50 U/ml). Cells were treated with the indicated agents as described above. Cells were stimulated with recombinant IL-1 (25 ng/ml) and TNF- (10 ng/ml) for 20 min in this experiment. In all cases, only the relevant region of the autoradiogram is shown.

Involvement of TNF- and/or IL-1 in the priming effect of IFN-. The above data indicate that IFN-inducible proteins may contribute to the synergy between IFN- and LPS. Under the conditions of IFN- priming, the induction of other cytokines may account for some of these effects. We therefore determined whether IFN- modulation of LPS-regulated NF-B activation involved known cytokines. For this purpose, we tested the effects of antibodies against the IL-1 receptor (IL-1R) and/or tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-) on the priming activity of IFN- because these two cytokines are known to activate NF-B (2, 28). Antibody against IL-1R was chosen to block the  and  isoforms of IL-1. As shown in Fig. 3B, the combination of IFN- and LPS treatments strongly activated NF-B DNA binding activity compared to that in untreated cells, which again showed a basal level of NF-B activation (compare lanes 1 and 4). Although LPS alone caused a slight activation of NF-B (lane 3), it strongly induced NF-B in IFN--primed cells (lane 4). Antibodies against both IL-1R and TNF- each blocked the hyperactivation of NF-B binding in IFN--primed, LPS-treated cells (compare lanes 5 and 6 to lane 4). These antibodies themselves had no effect on the basal DNA binding activity of NF-B (lane 2). Preincubation of cells with both antibodies together did not reduce the DNA binding of NF-B beyond that obtained with either antibody alone (lane 7). In the presence of either or both of the antibodies, notable activation of NF-B still occurred (compare lanes 5 to 7 to lanes 1 and 2). These results suggest the existence of an autocrine loop involving key cytokines (IL-1 or TNF- and perhaps others), which may contribute to the priming effect of IFN- on LPS-regulated NF-B activation.

Effect of LPS on IFN--stimulated gene expression. Since IFN- augmented LPS-stimulated pathways, we examined whether LPS also modulated signals induced by IFN- in a corresponding manner. In these experiments, nuclear extracts after various treatments were incubated with a ³²P-labeled pIRE oligonucleotide, and an EMSA was performed to detect the binding of STAT1 to this element. Previously, this element has been shown to bind to STAT1 in many cell types (21, 35). A typical pattern of STAT1 activation is shown in Fig. 4A. In the absence of any stimulus, there was no activation of STAT1 binding to pIRE (Fig. 4A, lane 1). As anticipated, IFN- activated STAT1 binding to pIRE (Fig. 4A, lane 2). To examine the effect of LPS on IFN--stimulated STAT1 activation, cells were costimulated with various doses of LPS in the presence of a fixed dose of IFN- (50 U/ml). In contrast to IFN- (lane 2), LPS alone did not induce STAT1 binding to pIRE (lane 1). However, in the presence of increasing doses of LPS, IFN- strongly activated STAT1 (Fig. 4B, lanes 4, 6, and 8). The identity of this band as STAT1 was ascertained by supershifting of this band with STAT1-specific antibodies (data not shown).

View larger version (13K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 4.   Effect of pretreatment with IFN- on the induction of DNA binding of STAT1 by LPS. (A) Pattern of activated STAT1 binding to the pIRE by IFN-. (B) Where indicated, cells were treated with IFN- (50 U/ml) for 2 h prior to LPS treatment for 30 min. The LPS concentrations were 100 (lanes 1 and 4), 10 (lane 6), and 1 (lane 8) ng/ml. Nuclear extracts were analyzed by EMSA using a 32P-labeled pIRE probe for STAT1 binding. Only the relevant region of the blot is shown.

View larger version (31K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 5.   Synergistic induction of IFN--responsive gene promoter. RAW cells were transfected with a luciferase reporter gene driven by the pIRE. Cell extracts were prepared and assayed for luciferase activity as described earlier (19). The data are means ± the standard errors of the means of triplicate measurements. Bars: 1, no treatment; 2, LPS (100 ng/ml); 3, IFN- (50 U/ml); 4, IFN- plus LPS.

View larger version (39K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 6.   Synergistic induction of luciferase by TNF- or IL-1 in association with IFN-. RAW cells were transfected with a luciferase reporter gene driven by the pIRE. Cell extracts were prepared and assayed for luciferase activity as described earlier (19). The data are means ± the standard errors of the means of triplicate measurements. The various treatments applied (for 16 h) are indicated at the bottom. A minus or plus sign indicates the absence or presence, respectively, of the given agent during incubation. An anti-TNF- antibody (2.5 µg/ml) and/or an anti-IL-1R antibody (2.5 µg/ml) were added to the culture 30 min prior to treatment with the indicated cytokines. IFN- (50 U/ml), IL-1 (25 ng/ml), and TNF- (10 ng/ml) were used in the experiment.

	DISCUSSION

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and methods Results Discussion References

LPS may be required for activation of host defenses against bacteria commonly found in sepsis (4). However, an excessive host response to LPS may result in collateral tissue injury and sepsis (7). Consequently, it would be advantageous to have mechanisms that limit the biological effects of endotoxin. In the event of transient endotoxin exposure, inflammatory responses are limited. In contrast, it may be advantageous for LPS to initiate a vigorous inflammatory response once gram-negative bacteria have gained a foothold in the host. During active infection, there is an expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, TNF-, and IFN-) such that the superimposition of LPS in this milieu may enable the host to mount a more vigorous response to the pathogen. Thus, the synergy between LPS and inflammatory cytokines such as IFN- may represent an important regulatory mechanism by which the host is sure of a significant, ongoing infection before it activates potent effector responses (8). We have shown that the translocation of NF-B to the nucleus by LPS in IFN--primed cells is a dose-dependent event. This synergistic interaction may enable the host to rapidly mobilize its antibacterial defenses at much lower levels of LPS and minimize collateral tissue injury and sepsis. Consequently, an understanding of the mechanisms by which the synergistic interactions between endotoxin and proinflammatory cytokines occur may provide important insight not only into the development of antibacterial defense mechanisms but also into how those mechanisms decompensate into an excessive septic response.

In this study, we investigated the mechanisms by which IFN- enhances the effects of LPS on macrophages. Both LPS and IFN- are important in the lethal outcome of bacterial infection. The role of IFN- in aggravating the host response to LPS has been demonstrated in vitro (18, 27, 29) and in vivo (20, 33, 42). Consistent with previous observations (12, 15, 25, 31, 41), we have observed that priming of murine macrophages with IFN- significantly enhances the expression of iNOS mRNA with a subsequent increase in the production of nitrite in response to LPS (data not shown). Nitrite is an important mediator of not only antimicrobial but also immunosuppressive and host-damaging activities (reviewed in reference 26). However, the exact manner in which these molecules interplay is not completely understood.

To understand these mechanisms, we first investigated whether priming of macrophages with IFN- had any effect on the DNA binding activity of NF-B induced by subsequent stimulation with LPS. Indeed, priming by IFN- rendered the macrophages more responsive. Lower doses of LPS were sufficient for induction of NF-B DNA binding activity (Fig. 1A), and these responses were rapid in IFN--primed cells (Fig. 1B). These data are consistent with the enhanced iNOS mRNA expression and nitrite production. In a complementary manner, LPS augmented IFN--activated STAT1 DNA binding. STAT1 binding to pIRE in response to IFN- was enhanced further when macrophages were incubated with LPS (Fig. 4B, lanes 4, 6, and 8). Previously, LPS was shown to activate STAT3 (44). Indeed, STAT3 associates with IFN receptors (32). Consistent with these data, we have observed enhancement of STAT1 and STAT3 binding to the sis-inducible element of the c-jun promoter (data not shown). These observations suggest yet another level of synergy between LPS- and IFN--regulated pathways. More importantly, our results identify a novel interaction between IFN- and LPS at the pretranscriptional level, in contrast to the previously described posttranscriptional effects (25). The fact that TNF- and IL-1 also enhance IFN- responses (Fig. 6) may indicate that these LPS-inducible cytokines contribute to the enhanced responses. The molecular mechanism of such actions needs to be defined further.

IB, the natural inhibitor of NF-B, exists in mammalian cells in three isoforms, , , and  (34). Although the role of IB- is uncertain, IB- is specific for NF-B, and IB- inhibits the DNA binding of the related c-Rel protein (34). Thus, the enhancement of LPS-initiated DNA binding of NF-B by IFN- should reflect the corresponding changes in IB. Indeed, we demonstrated that IFN- strongly enhanced the LPS-regulated degradation of IB- in a time- and dose-dependent manner (Fig. 2A and B). Interestingly, only IB-, not IB-, was affected. These data suggest a specific effect of IFN- priming on one of the isoforms. Since NF-B was rapidly activated by LPS in IFN--primed cells and at least 30 min of priming was required, we therefore determined whether an IFN--induced protein factor was responsible for the observed synergy. Indeed, blockade of protein synthesis during IFN- priming suppressed the synergistic activation of NF-B (Fig. 3A). It has recently been shown that IFN-induced PKR (protein kinase R) is essential for NF-B activation in response to certain stimuli, such as poly(I · C) (24). The fact that IFN- augments the ability of LPS to superstimulate NF-B raises the possibility that IFN-stimulated PKR participates in this process. Blockade with CHX probably prevents accumulation of the optimal levels of PKR required for synergy with LPS.

Alternatively, IFN- may induce the production and/or release of other cytokines, like IL-1 or TNF-, which enhance LPS-mediated effects (2, 3, 5, 28). Preincubation of cells with monoclonal antibodies raised against IL-1R or TNF- at saturating concentrations only partially blocked the LPS-regulated NF-B activation (Fig. 3B). Furthermore, cotreatment with both of the antibodies neither completely blocked NF-B activation nor reduced it below the levels achieved with the single antibodies (Fig. 3B, lane 6). Thus, IFN--stimulated factors other than IL-1 and TNF- may synergize with LPS. The fact that IFN- enhances IL-1- and TNF--activated NF-B binding to DNA is consistent with this notion (Fig. 3C). Furthermore, these experiments also indicate the functional specificity of the antibodies used in this study. These observations also suggest a linear pathway in which IFN- stimulates the expression of one of these cytokines (IL-1 or TNF-) which, in turn, activates the other. Therefore, blockade of one will block the action of the other. In an analogous manner, priming with IFN- increases the amount of IL-1 release upon subsequent stimulation with LPS in endothelial cells (27). Also, IFN- is known to augment the TNF receptor expression (36). IFN- also increases the binding of LPS to macrophages via changes in the membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition (9) and thus may enhance the effects of LPS, even at a level before the signal transduction cascade. However, this increase in binding of LPS required 18 h of treatment with IFN- (9), unlike the rapid priming effect of IFN- seen in our studies. Although our studies indicate the interactions between the disparate signaling pathways and consequent hyperstimulation of cytokine responses in a macrophage cell line, the occurrence of these phenomena in primary macrophages needs to be addressed further. Our future investigations are directed on this line.

In summary, we present evidence that (i) IFN--induced priming of macrophages enhanced their response to LPS and occurred at the level of signal transduction (i.e., pretranscription) and (ii) this involved at least two distinct mechanisms, i.e., a direct interaction between the signal transduction pathways employed by IFN- and LPS and an autocrine loop that uses TNF- and IL-1. By sensitizing itself to very low doses of LPS, the host may respond more efficiently to an incipient infection by gram-negative organisms.