![[Feedback]](/icons/banner/feedbackACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[For Subscribers]](/icons/banner/subscriberACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Archive]](/icons/banner/archiveACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Search]](/icons/banner/searchACT.gif){kind=icon}
![[Contents]](/icons/banner/tocACT.gif){kind=icon}
Previous Article | Next Article 
Infection and Immunity, February 2006, p. 1016-1024, Vol. 74, No. 2
0019-9567/06/$08.00+0 doi:10.1128/IAI.74.2.1016-1024.2006
Copyright © 2006, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Wolfgang W. Scholz,4 and
Jagadish Sircar4
Sealy Center for Vaccine Development, Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infections, Department of Microbiology and Immunology,1 Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070,2 Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070,3 Avanir Pharmaceuticals, Inc., San Diego, California4
Received 27 September 2005/ Returned for modification 27 October 2005/ Accepted 5 November 2005
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
PA possesses distinct antigenic epitopes that elicit neutralizing antibodies capable of protecting experimental animals against inhalation anthrax (18). However, not all PA antibodies are effective in neutralizing the toxin complex (22). In vivo evaluation of protection provided by neutralizing anti-PA antibodies can be performed in Fisher 344 rats injected with LeTx. The monoclonal antibody AVP-21D9, derived from human blood lymphocytes from an anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA)-immunized individual, has been shown to be highly effective at LeTx neutralization (29). Protection against B. anthracis infection, however, is a more complex and stringent test of PA antibodies that block only the action of the anthrax toxins, and the small-animal models of inhalation anthrax vary in the extent to which anti-PA antibodies confer protection (9, 11, 19, 26, 27, 38). Nonhuman primates and rabbits are often considered the best models because they can be most effectively protected by the AVA vaccine, which contains PA and other B. anthracis-derived components (11, 26, 27, 38). In contrast, guinea pigs and mice appear more difficult to protect with the AVA vaccine (2, 9, 19).
In this study, we evaluated the capacity of a fully characterized human monoclonal anti-PA antibody (AVP-21D9), alone and combined with limited ciprofloxacin doses, to protect mice and guinea pigs against lethal doses of B. anthracis spores administered by the intranasal route. Further, AVP-21D9 was tested in rabbits for its protective capacity against intranasal challenge. This potent human monoclonal anti-PA antibody was reported to block PA heptamer formation and to neutralize LeTx in vitro and in vivo in a rat toxin neutralization assay (29, 35). In this report, we have demonstrated for the first time that a single dose of AVP-21D9 could delay death in mice and guinea pigs and completely protect rabbits, following lethal challenge by nasal instillation of B. anthracis Ames spores. In combination with low ciprofloxacin doses, AVP-21D9 could significantly enhance and prolong the survival of both mice and guinea pigs. Differences in the roles of the B. anthracis toxins and the bacterial capsule in the three animal models are thought to account for the variation in protection observed.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Human monoclonal antibody to PA. AVP-21D9 (Avanir Pharmaceuticals, San Diego, CA) is a wholly human monoclonal antibody specific for PA and was produced by CHO (Chinese hamster ovary)-K1 cells adapted to growth in serum-free medium in Integra cell culture flasks or in a bioreactor by VaxGen, Inc., Brisbane, CA, for Avanir Pharmaceuticals (29, 35). The protein A-purified AVP-21D9 antibodies showed a purity of >95% as judged by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis, the binding affinity to PA was within 0.05 ± 0.03 nM (n = 8 different batches) as determined on the BiaCore 3000 instrument (Piscataway, NJ), and the 50% effective concentration in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) standardized toxin neutralization assay using the J774.1 macrophage cell line was previously reported to be 0.02 nM (n = 25) (27a; C. P. Quinn [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga., personal communication).
Preparation of B. anthracis spores. Spores were prepared by inoculating B. anthracis Ames strain in 2x SG sporulation medium (pH 7.0) consisting of 16 g Difco Nutrient Broth, 0.5 g MgSO4 · 7H2O, 2.0 g KCl, and 16.7 g MOPS (morpholinepropanesulfonic acid) per liter (17). Before inoculation, the following supplements were added to the medium after filter sterilization using 0.22-µm syringe filters: 0.1% glucose, 1 mM Ca(NO3)2, 0.1 mM MnSO4, and 1 µM FeSO4. Cultures were grown in 50-ml aliquots contained in 500-ml Erlenmeyer flasks fitted with Bug Stoppers (Fisher Scientific, Hampton, NH) at 37°C with gentle shaking (80 to 90 rpm) for 24 h, after which 100 ml of sterile distilled water was added to dilute the medium and promote sporulation. After 10 to 11 days of continuous shaking, sporulation was confirmed at >99% via the malachite green spore stain, and the spores were centrifuged at 587 x g in a sealed-carrier centrifuge (Jouan Inc., Winchester, VA) at 4°C for 15 min. The spore pellets were then washed four times in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and resuspended in the same buffer. The spore suspensions were homogeneous when examined by phase-contrast microscopy. Plate counts were performed in triplicate to establish the concentration of viable spores in the suspension, which was then adjusted to a concentration of 1 x 109 CFU/ml. Aliquots of the stock spore suspension were stored at –70°C and freshly diluted in PBS to the desired density of CFU immediately before each animal challenge experiment. B. anthracis cultures and spores were prepared and stored in a restricted-access biosafety level 2 laboratory registered with the CDC and inspected by the Department of Defense and the United States Department of Agriculture.
Challenge of mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits with B. anthracis Ames spores. To evaluate the protective efficacy of AVP-21D9 monoclonal antibody in vivo, we challenged 8-week-old (25- to 30-g) female Swiss-Webster mice (Taconic, Germantown, NY) and 250- to 300-g Hartley guinea pigs (Charles River Laboratories, Wilmington, MA) intranasally with 5 x 104 CFU and 6 x 105 CFU of B. anthracis Ames spores, respectively. We determined that these doses constituted five 50% lethal doses (LD50s) per species (data not shown). Dutch-belted rabbits (0.7 to 1.1 kg; Myrtle's Rabbitry, Inc., Thompson Station, TN) were challenged using similar procedures with 100 LD50s (1 x 107 CFU) of nasally instilled B. anthracis Ames spores (the LD50 was established in our laboratory).
Mice and guinea pigs were anesthetized by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection with a mixture of ketamine-HCl (48 mg/kg of body weight for mice and 30 mg/kg for guinea pigs) and xylazine-HCl (9.6 mg/kg for mice and 7 mg/kg for guinea pigs). The rabbits were anesthetized with ketamine (35 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection. For spore instillation, anesthetized animals were suspended vertically, using the upper incisors, as described by Comer et al. (7), with the bulk of the body weight of the larger animals resting on the base of the platform. The spore suspension was instilled slowly for 2 to 3 min onto the anterior opening of each naris. Separate experiments instilling crystal violet dye solution using this technique ensured that the inoculum was deposited in the trachea with a minimal amount in the esophagus. The challenge volume was 20 µl/naris for mice, 25 µl/naris for guinea pigs, and 50 µl/naris for rabbits. PBS (20, 25, and 50 µl/naris) was then used to wash any nonadherent spores from the nasal cavity into the lungs for each animal species. All animal challenges were performed in a select-agent-approved, restricted-access animal biosafety level 3 laboratory under an approved Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee protocol.
Passive immunization and ciprofloxacin administration. Generally, 24 h after intranasal challenge with B. anthracis Ames spores (a five-LD50 dose), mice were passively immunized with a single subcutaneous (s.c.) dose of 500 µg/mouse (16.7 mg/kg) of AVP-21D9, and some animals were also injected with ciprofloxacin (0.9 mg/day; 30 mg/kg/day/mouse) by the i.p. route twice daily (b.i.d.) for 6 days. The AVP-21D9 contained 20 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, and 0.01% Tween 80. Guinea pigs were given a single i.p. injection of 3.1 mg (10 mg/kg), 6.2 mg (20 mg/kg), or 15 mg/guinea pig (50 mg/kg) of AVP-21D9, either 6 h prechallenge or 24 h postchallenge (as indicated) and s.c. injections of 1.12 (3.7 mg/kg/day), 2.25 (7.5 mg/kg/day), or 4.5 mg (15 mg/kg/day/guinea pig) of ciprofloxacin b.i.d. for 6 days starting 24 h after challenge with five LD50s of B. anthracis Ames spores. Control groups of animals received AVP-21D9 antibody alone, ciprofloxacin only, or no treatment. Rabbits were given a single s.c. injection of AVP-21D9 monoclonal antibody (0.2, 1, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) at the same time as nasal challenge with 100 LD50s of B. anthracis Ames spores. In the delayed-treatment experiment, rabbits were injected s.c. with AVP-21D9 (10 mg/kg) at various times (0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h) following intranasal challenge with B. anthracis spores.
Serological assay. Antibody capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for PA were used to determine the adaptive immune responses of mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits to antigens from the B. anthracis Ames spore infection. Briefly, blood samples were collected in serum separator microtubes containing silicone (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ) 30 days postchallenge, and the sera were harvested by centrifugation at 519 x g for 5 min. For the ELISA, twofold serial dilutions of the sera were made beginning at 1:20 in 96-well flat-bottom cell culture plates (Corning Inc., Acton, MA) coated with 5 µg/ml PA (BEI Resources) diluted in sodium carbonate buffer (pH 9.6). The plates were then washed with PBS containing 0.05% Tween 20 and blocked for 1 h with PBS containing 10% fetal bovine serum. After 1 h of incubation at room temperature, the plates were washed three times with PBS plus 0.05% Tween 20, and mouse, guinea pig, or rabbit anti-PA immunoglobulin G (IgG) was detected by adding 0.5 µg/ml goat anti-mouse, anti-guinea pig, or anti-rabbit IgG, respectively, conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA). The plates were developed with ABTS substrate [2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid] (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO) for 20 to 60 min, and absorbance at 405 nm was measured with a BioTek Synergy HT spectrofluorometer (Bio-Tek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT). The final anti-PA titers were established by the dilution that yielded one-half of the maximum absorbance in the ELISA anti-PA control (optical density at 405 nm).
In vitro toxin neutralization assay. We measured lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) enzyme release from a murine monocyte-macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7; American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA) to assess the protection afforded by sera from guinea pigs and rabbits that were challenged with B. anthracis Ames spores. Briefly, the RAW 264.7 cells were propagated in Dulbecco's modified essential medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 µg/ml penicillin-streptomycin, and 2 mM L-glutamine (Mediatech, Inc., Herndon, VA) at 37°C with 5% CO2 using tissue culture flasks. Subsequently, the cells were plated in 96-well flat-bottom tissue culture plates (Corning) at a density of 1 x 106 cells/ml and incubated overnight at 37°C in 5% CO2. The monolayers were washed twice with Dulbecco's modified essential medium devoid of serum or phenol red. LeTx-mediated cytotoxicity was measured as a function of the amount of LDH enzyme released from the macrophages into the cell culture supernatants. Various dilutions of the infected (for 30 days) guinea pig and rabbit sera (starting from 1:10 dilution, followed by twofold serial dilutions) were preincubated with 12 nM PA (1.0 µg/ml) and 2 nM LF (0.2 µg/ml) for 1 h at 37°C and added to the culture media. After incubation for 4 h, LDH release in the supernatant of the macrophage cells was measured using the CytoTox 96 nonradioactive cytotoxicity assay kit (Promega, Madison, WI) and quantitated by measuring wavelength absorbance at 490 nm. The final neutralizing antibody titers of sera were reported as the reciprocal of the dilution that resulted in 50% of the difference between the relative amounts of LDH release in the untreated culture media and LeTx controls.
Pharmacokinetic studies. To determine the serum concentrations of AVP-21D9 antibody in Swiss-Webster mice over time, a group of five 20-g mice each received 1 mg (50 mg/kg) AVP-21D9 by i.p. injection, either as a bolus at time zero or as two injections of 0.5 mg (25 mg/kg) each at time zero and 72 h later. Serum samples were collected by retro-orbital bleeding at 1, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 73, 78, 84, 96, 120, 144, 168, 192, 216, and 240 h.
To assess the serum concentrations of AVP-21D9 antibody in Hartley guinea pigs (250 to 300 g) over time, two groups of three guinea pigs each received a single i.p. injection of 1.5 (5 mg/kg) or 15 mg (50 mg/kg) of the antibody. Blood samples were collected by toenail bed snips at 0, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, 168, and 216 h after injection.
To determine the levels of AVP-21D9 in rabbits, four Dutch-belted rabbits (1.3 to 1.7 kg) were injected with 1 and 10 mg/kg of the antibody by s.c. injection. Blood samples were collected from the central ear artery with a 1-ml syringe fitted with a 25-gauge needle.
The AVP-21D9 antibody concentrations in the sera were measured by surface plasmon resonance using a Biacore 3000. Briefly, a goat anti-human IgG capture antibody (Jackson Immuno Research Inc., West Grove, PA) was coupled to flow cell number 1 of a CM-5 sensor chip (Biacore catalog no. BR-1003-99) at a level of 10,000 response units using an Amine Coupling Kit (Biacore catalog no. BR-1000-50). Human IgG1 (20 µg/ml; Sigma I-5154) was used to generate a standard curve. Antibody serum samples were diluted 1:10 and 1:100 in HBS-EP buffer (10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 3.4 mM EDTA, 0.005% Surfactant P20). Each sample was assayed in duplicate, and standards were assayed in triplicate. Response unit values were taken 2 min into the injection of the standards and samples, and Biacore evaluation software was used to generate a standard curve from which unknown sample concentrations were calculated.
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
We measured low levels of residual human IgG antibody specific for PA (AVP-21D9) by species-specific PA ELISA in sera from 22 guinea pigs surviving 30 days post-primary challenge (geometric mean titer, 1:41, or 40-ng/ml AVP-21D9 equivalents). This residual human anti-PA antibody could have provided some protection to the guinea pigs upon rechallenge; however, we also sought to examine the animals' adaptive immune response to PA post-primary challenge. Serum samples were collected from the guinea pigs surviving 30 days (Fig. 3 and 4) post-primary challenge with five LD50s of B. anthracis spores. In our analysis, guinea pig-specific anti-PA ELISA serum titers and LeTx neutralization titers, illustrated in Fig. 7A and B, from two experiments (Fig. 3 and 4) were combined. Of the guinea pigs that survived secondary challenge, 41.7% (15/36) had developed species-specific anti-PA ELISA titers of 
1:300, with a geometric mean titer of 1:3,860 (range, 1:300 to 1:40,000) by 4 weeks post-primary challenge (Fig. 7A). Further, 89.5% (17/20) of the guinea pigs that died after secondary challenge had no detectable species-specific anti-PA ELISA titer (
1:20). One animal with a species-specific anti-PA ELISA titer of 1:160 and another with a titer of 1:5,000 did not survive rechallenge, and one animal with a titer of 1:20 survived the secondary challenge. Despite these exceptions, the results (Fig. 7A) indicated a strong relationship between survival after rechallenge and an animal's capacity to develop an anti-PA antibody response following initial spore challenge. These results were supported by additional titration of the sera by an LeTx neutralization assay in RAW 264.7 cells (Fig. 7B), although the neutralization titers were low and the difference in titers between the two groups of guinea pigs (those that survived [1:47] versus those that did not survive [1:11]) was not as prominent.
|
The same sera from rabbits surviving 3 weeks after primary challenge were also assayed for newly formed rabbit anti-PA antibodies by species-specific PA ELISA. We observed that the rabbits dosed with 20 mg/kg of AVP-21D9 3 weeks earlier built species-specific geometric mean anti-PA titers of 1:146 (n = 7), while rabbits that had been dosed with 10 mg/kg of AVP-21D9 had formed rabbit anti-PA titers of 1:80 (n = 6). Rabbits receiving lower doses of AVP-21D9, specifically 5 or 1 mg/kg, had titers of 1:288 (n = 7) and 1:260 (n = 7), respectively. The human IgG (AVP-21D9 control) in these assays did not cross-react with the goat anti-rabbit IgG conjugate used in the ELISA (data not shown).
Finally, we examined sera from mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits for development of species-specific antibodies to the foreign human monoclonal antibody AVP-21D9. As expected, all animals passively immunized with AVP-21D9 generated serum anti-AVP-21D9 ELISA titers (data not shown). The immune response to AVP-21D9 could have hastened clearance of the foreign human antibody from the circulation prior to secondary challenge and/or contributed to neutralization of AVP-21D9.
Pharmacokinetic studies of AVP-21D9 antibody. Pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained in mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits (Table 1). An initial experiment with mice showed a maximum concentration of antibody in serum (Cmax) of 692 ± 155 µg/ml that was reached after 5 ± 2 h following a bolus i.p. injection of 50 mg/kg AVP-21D9. The antibody was rapidly eliminated, with an elimination half-life of 2.8 ± 1.4 days. Administration of two doses of 25 mg/kg yielded superimposable terminal elimination curves (data not shown). Similar serum levels (Cmax = 585 µg/ml) were observed in guinea pigs injected i.p. with 50 mg/kg of AVP-21D9. The time to maximum concentration of antibody in serum was reached later (28 ± 14 h), and the elimination half-life was longer (13.8 ± 8.1 days), but there was a lot of variability in this group (the elimination half-lives were 5.4, 14.5, and 21.5 days versus 2.5, 5.2, and 5.7 days in the 5-mg/kg group). The Cmax, as well as the total amount of AVP-21D9 detected in the serum over the time course of the study (area under the curve [AUC] from time zero to the last measured time point) was reduced approximately 10-fold in guinea pigs given 5 mg/kg AVP-21D9 compared to those that received 50 mg/kg, indicating a linear dose response at these dosing levels (Table 1). An additional study was performed in Dutch-belted rabbits, which were given a single s.c. dose of AVP-21D9 at 1 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg, and serum samples were collected for 14 days. The s.c. route was chosen to eliminate unwanted potential variability of i.p. dosing and to more closely mimic a potential route for human administration. At the 1-mg/kg dose, which completely protected the rabbits from anthrax spore challenge, we observed a Cmax of 23 µg/ml that was reached after 2 days. Moreover, administration of 10 mg/kg AVP-21D9 yielded approximately 10-fold-higher Cmax and corresponding AUC values, confirming the dose proportionality seen earlier in guinea pigs. The terminal elimination half-life is comparable to that in guinea pigs (5 to 9 days) and much lower than would be expected for a fully human antibody administered to humans.
|
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Since B. anthracis spores germinate asynchronously and often cause infection long after exposure, a prolonged period of prophylactic treatment with antibiotics is required (2, 10, 12, 33). Because treatment regimens are lengthy, we investigated the protective effect of the human monoclonal antibody AVP-21D9, specific for B. anthracis PA, alone and in combination with ciprofloxacin using mouse, guinea pig, and rabbit models of intranasal challenge.
Currently, there are several anti-PA monoclonal antibodies at various stages of development (14, 15, 21, 32, 37), but a direct comparison of the potencies of these antibodies in the same animal model is lacking. Two reports described antibodies that neutralize LeTx in a toxin challenge model (14, 37), but data from a spore challenge model have not yet been reported. Another group showed protection of A/J mice challenged with 30 LD50s of B. anthracis Sterne strain spores by 180 µg of a plant-derived version of anti-PA antibodies obtained from IQ6E4 hybridomas (IQ Corporation, The Netherlands) administered 2.5 h before challenge (15). More comparable to the studies described in this report, Beebe et al. (3) reported 100% protection of New Zealand White (NZW) rabbits challenged by the aerosol route with 100 LD50s of Ames spores when 40 mg/kg of human PA monoclonal antibody (5H3; ABthrax) was administered intravenously at the time of challenge. Cui et al. showed that a PA monoclonal antibody significantly improved the outcome of a lethal toxin infusion rat model when the antibody was administered at 10-fold molar excess to PA up to 6 h after initial exposure to LeTx (8). This human antibody was found to be safe and well tolerated when administered as a single intramuscular or intravenous dose in a human phase I trial at doses ranging from 0.3 to 40 mg/kg (32).
Similar results were reported for ETI-204, a chimeric anti-PA antibody with an equilibrium dissociation constant of 0.33 nM, which provided 90 to 100% protection when given at 10 mg/kg to NZW rabbits prior to challenge with 100 to 200 LD50s of aerosolized B. anthracis Ames spores (21). As shown in this report, AVP-21D9 provided full protection to rabbits at 1 mg/kg (i.e., a 40-fold-lower dose than the above-mentioned PA monoclonal antibody 5H3), and it provided complete protection to rabbits even when administered subcutaneously 12 h post-spore challenge, with peak levels of serum antibody being reached 40 h later. A potency similar to that of AVP-21D9, i.e., protection at 1 mg/kg, has been claimed only for MDX-1303 (Valortim), but the data have not been published other than in a press release and therefore could not be independently confirmed. We anticipate that AVP-21D9 will have a safety profile in humans similar to those of the above-mentioned PA monoclonal antibodies and will potentially require lower doses of antibody, which are expected to be achievable by various routes of administration in humans. These qualities should qualify AVP-21D9 as a top candidate for further development for use in humans, either for preexposure/postexposure prophylaxis or for therapeutic treatment of individuals exposed to anthrax spores.
The affinity measurements from eight different lots of AVP-21D9 antibody showed an average equilibrium dissociation constant of 0.05 ± 0.03 nM. Further characterization of the antibody determined that it inhibited PA heptamer formation, a prerequisite for toxin entry into the cell (35). In this report, the pharmacokinetic results in uninfected mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits revealed the presence of peak levels of AVP-21D9 antibody in blood during the critical period (2 to 5 days) when deaths from inhalation anthrax occurred with the highest frequency (Table 1). The elimination half-life and serum levels in Dutch-belted rabbits reported here are comparable to the values reported for other anti-PA antibodies in NZW rabbits (3, 18), and it is expected that the half-life of the fully human AVP-21D9 will be significantly increased in humans (32). However, the serum levels alone are not predictive of protection in all of the animal models. For example, the Cmax of AVP-21D9 in Dutch-belted rabbits was only 23 ± 3 µg/ml in the fully protected group treated with 1 mg/kg AVP-21D9, while guinea pigs treated with 50 mg/kg AVP-21D9 reached a Cmax of 580 ± 16 µg/ml but were not fully protected by antibody alone.
We observed that AVP-21D9 anti-PA alone delayed the deaths of mice and guinea pigs from anthrax and, when combined with low doses of ciprofloxacin, conferred additive or synergistic protection in both of the models. We surmised that the lower levels of antibiotic allowed some replication of the bacteria, which in turn served as a potent source of PA and other antigens that elicited an adaptive immune response. The synergy observed between ciprofloxacin and the human anti-PA antibody offers promise for future improvements in prophylaxis and treatment against inhalation anthrax.
We determined that mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits formed a specific antibody response to AVP-21D9 (human IgG). We do not anticipate that this will occur in humans dosed with AVP-21D9, since it is a wholly human monoclonal antibody. Passive immunization with human monoclonal antibodies to PA offers an opportunity to protect or treat patients exposed to B. anthracis spores. It is unlikely that unvaccinated patients at risk of contracting anthrax would be treated using an effective antibody alone, simply because of the gravity of the infection, the fulminating course of the clinical disease, the dangerously high mortality of the infection for the affected patient, and ethical issues related to the use of effective antibiotics. Consequently, evaluation of new treatment regimens in combination with antibiotics is a rational medical practice. Fortunately, human-to-human secondary transmission of inhalation anthrax has not been reported (36).
We observed that AVP-21D9, with or without ciprofloxacin, did not provide long-term protection to mice. Likewise, few mice developed a species-specific anti-PA response, but it is unclear whether this observation is related to the limited duration of resistance. In contrast, we observed that if guinea pigs were kept alive for 36 days, with ciprofloxacin and/or human monoclonal antibody to PA following initial challenge with B. anthracis spores, 50% (18/36) of them developed a geometric mean guinea pig-specific anti-PA ELISA titer of >1:300, which provided them with an 80% chance of surviving rechallenge. That one-half of the animals failed to develop an anti-PA antibody response could have been due to the inhibitory effect of the anthrax toxins on T cells formed during the primary infection (1, 31). Exceptions to this generalization were three dead animals that had anti-PA ELISA titers greater than 1:160 and the one survivor of rechallenge with an undetectable PA antibody response. The low LeTx neutralizing antibody titers possibly reflect a low survival rate after rechallenge. Based on study results, we could have predicted with reasonable accuracy survival following rechallenge, based on a minimum anti-PA ELISA titer of >1:300 (80% survival), but would have been unable to predict survivors based on the low neutralization titers, as neutralization titers of >1:30 yielded only a 50% probability of an animal surviving rechallenge. These findings do not imply that neutralization titers are unimportant in evaluating vaccines against anthrax, as the development of serological responses to PA, following experimental infection, was likely reduced by the immunosuppressive effects of LeTx on dendritic cells and lymphocytes (1, 24, 31).
Analysis of rabbit sera 3 weeks after dosing with AVP-21D9 and challenge with 100 LD50s of B. anthracis spores revealed significant levels of AVP-21D9 remaining, which likely contributed to their protection against secondary challenge. These animals were also protected by rising titers of rabbit anti-PA antibody formed in response to PA and possibly other antigens presented following initial challenge. Taken together, these data indicated that development of anti-PA, and possibly antibodies to other B. anthracis antigens, by the host immune response was primarily responsible for providing protection to the animals after subsequent challenge with B. anthracis spores.
In conclusion, protection of both guinea pigs and mice was significantly enhanced by concomitant treatment with ciprofloxacin and a potent human monoclonal antibody to PA (AVP-21D9), but there were substantial differences in the two models, with the mouse being the most difficult to protect with antibodies to PA alone. In rabbits, AVP-21D9 alone was highly effective in protecting against lethal infection. The importance and strength of this study are that we evaluated the efficacy of anti-PA monoclonal antibody in three small-animal models. Our data support the further evaluation of AVP-21D9 in nonhuman primate challenge models and in humans for safety as a potential candidate for use in protecting humans exposed to anthrax spores.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
B. anthracis Ames was generously provided by C. Richard Lyons from the University of New Mexico Health Science Center, Albuquerque, and duly registered with the CDC. We thank Judith Hewitt at NIAID for contributing stimulating ideas and recommendations consistent with national biodefense priorities during the conduct of the research. In addition, we thank Andrew McNees for providing superb administrative support. The expert editorial skills of Mardelle Susman are gratefully acknowledged.
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
Present address: The School of Biosciences, University of Westminster, London SW6 6AB, United Kingdom.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
| 1. | Agrawal, A., J. Lingappa, S. H. Leppla, S. Agrawal, A. Jabbar, C. Quinn, and B. Pulendran. 2003. Impairment of dendritic cells and adaptive immunity by anthrax lethal toxin. Nature 424:329-334.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 2. | Altboum, Z., Y. Gozes, A. Barnea, A. Pass, M. White, and D. Kobiler. 2002. Postexposure prophylaxis against anthrax: evaluation of various treatment regimens in intranasally infected guinea pigs. Infect. Immun. 70:6231-6241. |
| 3. | Beebe, L., M. Babin, R. Barnwell, J. Zhong, and G. Choi. 2004. Post-exposure therapeutic potential of PA MAb in an inhalation model of anthrax in New Zealand White rabbits. Presented at the American Society for Microbiology Biodefense Meeting, Baltimore, Md. |
| 4. | Bonuccelli, G., F. Sotgia, P. G. Frank, T. M. Williams, C. J. de Almeida, H. B. Tanowitz, P. E. Scherer, K. A. Hotchkiss, B. I. Terman, B. Rollman, A. Alileche, J. Brojatsch, and M. P. Lisanti. 2005. ATR/TEM8 is highly expressed in epithelial cells lining Bacillus anthracis ' three sites of entry: implications for the pathogenesis of anthrax infection. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 288:C1402-C1410. |
| 5. | Bourgogne, A., M. Drysdale, S. G. Hilsenbeck, S. N. Peterson, and T. M. Koehler. 2003. Global effects of virulence gene regulators in a Bacillus anthracis strain with both virulence plasmids. Infect. Immun. 71:2736-2743. |
| 6. | Collier, R. J., and J. A. Young. 2003. Anthrax toxin. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 19:45-70.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 7. | Comer, J. E., D. M. Noffsinger, D. H. McHenry, D. M. Weisbaum, B. M. Chatuev, A. K. Chopra, and J. W. Peterson. Quinacrine inhibits the anthrax toxins but does not protect mice and guinea pigs from anthrax. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, in press. |
| 8. | Cui, X., Y. Li, M. Moayeri, G. H. Choi, G. M. Subramanian, X. Li, M. Haley, Y. Fitz, J. Feng, S. M. Banks, S. H. Leppla, and P. Q. Eichacker. 2005. Late treatment with a protective antigen-directed monoclonal antibody improves hemodynamic function and survival in a lethal toxin-infused rat model of anthrax sepsis. J. Infect. Dis. 191:422-434.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 9. | Drysdale, M., S. Heninger, J. Hutt, Y. Chen, C. R. Lyons, and T. M. Koehler. 2005. Capsule synthesis by Bacillus anthracis is required for dissemination in murine inhalation anthrax. EMBO J. 24:221-227.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 10. | Friedlander, A. M., S. L. Welkos, M. L. Pitt, J. W. Ezzell, P. L. Worsham, K. J. Rose, B. E. Ivins, J. R. Lowe, G. B. Howe, P. Mikesell, et al. 1993. Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1239-1243.[Medline] |
| 11. | Fritz, D. L., N. K. Jaax, W. B. Lawrence, K. J. Davis, M. L. Pitt, J. W. Ezzell, and A. M. Friedlander. 1995. Pathology of experimental inhalation anthrax in the rhesus monkey. Lab. Investig. 73:691-702.[Medline] |
| 12. | Grinberg, L. M., F. A. Abramova, O. V. Yampolskaya, D. H. Walker, and J. H. Smith. 2001. Quantitative pathology of inhalational anthrax I: quantitative microscopic findings. Mod. Pathol. 14:482-495.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 13. | Guarner, J., J. A. Jernigan, W. J. Shieh, K. Tatti, L. M. Flannagan, D. S. Stephens, T. Popovic, D. A. Ashford, B. A. Perkins, and S. R. Zaki. 2003. Pathology and pathogenesis of bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax. Am. J. Pathol. 163:701-709. |
| 14. | Huber, M., U. Vor Dem Esche, R. Grunow, and W. G. Bessler. 2005. Generation of mouse polyclonal and human monoclonal antibodies against Bacillus anthracis toxin. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 31:35-43.[Medline] |
| 15. | Hull, A. K., C. J. Criscuolo, V. Mett, H. Groen, W. Steeman, H. Westra, G. Chapman, B. Legutki, L. Baillie, and V. Yusibov. 2005. Human-derived, plant-produced monoclonal antibody for the treatment of anthrax. Vaccine 23:2082-2086.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 16. | Lacy, D. B., D. J. Wigelsworth, H. M. Scobie, J. A. Young, and R. J. Collier. 2004. Crystal structure of the von Willebrand factor A domain of human capillary morphogenesis protein 2: an anthrax toxin receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:6367-6372. |
| 17. | Leighton, T. J., and R. H. Doi. 1971. The stability of messenger ribonucleic acid during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. J. Biol. Chem. 246:3189-3195. |
| 18. | Little, S. F., S. H. Leppla, and E. Cora. 1988. Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies to the protective antigen component of Bacillus anthracis toxin. Infect. Immun. 56:1807-1813. |
| 19. | Lyons, C. R., J. Lovchik, J. Hutt, M. F. Lipscomb, E. Wang, S. Heninger, L. Berliba, and K. Garrison. 2004. Murine model of pulmonary anthrax: kinetics of dissemination, histopathology, and mouse strain susceptibility. Infect. Immun. 72:4801-4809. |
| 20. | Moayeri, M., and S. H. Leppla. 2004. The roles of anthrax toxin in pathogenesis. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 7:19-24.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 21. | Mohamed, N., M. Clagett, J. Li, S. Jones, S. Pincus, G. D'Alia, L. Nardone, M. Babin, G. Spitalny, and L. Casey. 2005. A high-affinity monoclonal antibody to anthrax protective antigen passively protects rabbits before and after aerosolized Bacillus anthracis spore challenge. Infect. Immun. 73:795-802. |
| 22. | Mohamed, N., J. Li, C. S. Ferreira, S. F. Little, A. M. Friedlander, G. L. Spitalny, and L. S. Casey. 2004. Enhancement of anthrax lethal toxin cytotoxicity: a subset of monoclonal antibodies against protective antigen increases lethal toxin-mediated killing of murine macrophages. Infect. Immun. 72:3276-3283. |
| 23. | Mourez, M. 2004. Anthrax toxins. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 152:135-164.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 24. | Paccani, S. R., F. Tonello, R. Ghittoni, M. Natale, L. Muraro, M. M. D'Elios, W. J. Tang, C. Montecucco, and C. T. Baldari. 2005. Anthrax toxins suppress T lymphocyte activation by disrupting antigen receptor signaling. J. Exp. Med. 201:325-331. |
| 25. | Pezard, C., P. Berche, and M. Mock. 1991. Contribution of individual toxin components to virulence of Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 59:3472-3477. |
| 26. | Phipps, A. J., C. Premanandan, R. E. Barnewall, and M. D. Lairmore. 2004. Rabbit and nonhuman primate models of toxin-targeting human anthrax vaccines. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 68:617-629. |
| 27. | Pitt, M. L., S. F. Little, B. E. Ivins, P. Fellows, J. Barth, J. Hewetson, P. Gibbs, M. Dertzbaugh, and A. M. Friedlander. 2001. In vitro correlate of immunity in a rabbit model of inhalational anthrax. Vaccine 19:4768-4773.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 27. | Quinn, C. P., P. M. Dull, V. Semenova, H. Li, S. Crotty, T. H. Taylor, E. Steward-Clark, K. L. Stamey, D. S. Schmidt, K. W. Stinson, A. E. Freeman, C. M. Ellie, S. K. Martin, C. Greene, R. D. Aubert, J. Glidewell, B. A Perkins, R. Ahmed, and D. S. Stephens. 2004. Immune responses to Bacillus anthracis protective antigen in patients with bioterrorism-related cutaneus or inhalation anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 190:1228-1236.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 28. | Santelli, E., L. A. Bankston, S. H. Leppla, and R. C. Liddington. 2004. Crystal structure of a complex between anthrax toxin and its host cell receptor. Nature 430:905-908.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 29. | Sawada-Hirai, R., I. Jiang, F. Wang, S. M. Sun, R. Nedellec, P. Ruther, A. Alvarez, D. Millis, P. R. Morrow, and A. S. Kang. 2004. Human anti-anthrax protective antigen neutralizing monoclonal antibodies derived from donors vaccinated with anthrax vaccine adsorbed. J. Immune Based Ther. Vaccines 2:5.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 30. | Scobie, H. M., and J. A. Young. 2005. Interactions between anthrax toxin receptors and protective antigen. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 8:106-112.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 31. | Starnbach, M. N., and R. J. Collier. 2003. Anthrax delivers a lethal blow to host immunity. Nat. Med. 9:996-997.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 32. | Subramanian, G. M., P. W. Cronin, G. Poley, A. Weinstein, S. M. Stoughton, J. Zhong, Y. Ou, J. F. Zmuda, B. L. Osborn, and W. W. Freimuth. 2005. A phase 1 study of PAmAb, a fully human monoclonal antibody against Bacillus anthracis protective antigen, in healthy volunteers. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41:12-20.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 33. | Tierney, B. C., S. W. Martin, L. H. Franzke, N. Marano, D. B. Reissman, R. D. Louchart, J. A. Goff, N. E. Rosenstein, J. L. Sever, and M. M. McNeil. 2003. Serious adverse events among participants in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Anthrax Vaccine and Antimicrobial Availability Program for persons at risk for bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax. Clin. Infect. Dis. 37:905-911.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 34. | Vasconcelos, D., R. Barnewall, M. Babin, R. Hunt, J. Estep, C. Nielsen, R. Carnes, and J. Carney. 2003. Pathology of inhalation anthrax in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Lab. Investig. 83:1201-1209.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 35. | Wang, F., P. Ruther, I. Jiang, R. Sawada-Hirai, S. M. Sun, R. Nedellec, P. R. Morrow, and A. S. Kang. 2004. Human monoclonal antibodies that neutralize anthrax toxin by inhibiting heptamer assembly. Hum. Antibodies 13:105-110.[Medline] |
| 36. | Weber, D. J., and W. A. Rutala. 2001. Risks and prevention of nosocomial transmission of rare zoonotic diseases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32:446-456.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 37. | Wild, M. A., H. Xin, T. Maruyama, M. J. Nolan, P. M. Calveley, J. D. Malone, M. R. Wallace, and K. S. Bowdish. 2003. Human antibodies from immunized donors are protective against anthrax toxin in vivo. Nat. Biotechnol. 21:1305-1306.[CrossRef][Medline] |
| 38. | Zaucha, G. M., L. M. Pitt, J. Estep, B. E. Ivins, and A. M. Friedlander. 1998. The pathology of experimental anthrax in rabbits exposed by inhalation and subcutaneous inoculation. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 122:982-992.[Medline] |
This article has been cited by other articles:
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| J. Bacteriol. | J. Virol. | Eukaryot. Cell |
|---|
| Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. | Clin. Vaccine Immunol. | All ASM Journals |
|---|
-PA antibody (AVP-21D9). The figure shows the protective effects of 10 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, and 50 mg/kg of AVP-21D9. The numbers of animals per group were as follows: PBS control, n = 16; 50-mg/kg PA antibody group, n = 10; 10- and 20-mg/kg PA antibody groups, n = 6. The data were analyzed statistically using the Fisher exact test, and a P value of 
