This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Rolán, H. G.
Right arrow Articles by Tsolis, R. M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Rolán, H. G.
Right arrow Articles by Tsolis, R. M.

 Previous Article  |  Next Article 

Infection and Immunity, June 2007, p. 2965-2973, Vol. 75, No. 6
0019-9567/07/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/IAI.01896-06
Copyright © 2007, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Mice Lacking Components of Adaptive Immunity Show Increased Brucella abortus virB Mutant Colonization{triangledown}

Hortensia García Rolán1,2 and Renée M. Tsolis1,2*

Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616,1 Texas A&M University System Health Science Center, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, College Station, Texas 77843-11142

Received 30 November 2006/ Returned for modification 31 January 2007/ Accepted 23 March 2007


arrow
ABSTRACT
 
The Brucella abortus type IV secretion system (T4SS), encoded by the virB genes, is essential for survival in mononuclear phagocytes in vitro. In the mouse model, a B. abortus virB mutant was initially able to colonize the spleen at the level of the wild type for approximately 3 to 5 days, which coincided with the development of adaptive immunity. To investigate the relationship between survival in macrophages cultivated in vitro and persistence in tissues in vivo, we tested the ability of mutant mice lacking components of adaptive immunity to eliminate the virB mutant from the spleen during a mixed infection with the B. abortus wild type. Ifng–/– or β2m–/– mice were able to clear the virB mutant to the same degree as control mice. However, spleens of Rag1–/– mice and Igh6–/– mice were more highly colonized by the virB mutant than control mice after 14 to 21 days, suggesting that, in these mice, there is not an absolute requirement for the T4SS to mediate persistence of B. abortus in the spleen. Macrophages isolated from Igh6–/– mice killed the virB mutant to the same extent as macrophages from control mice, showing that the reduced ability of these mice to clear the virB mutant from the spleen does not correlate with diminished macrophage function in vitro. These results show that in the murine model host, the T4SS is required for persistence beyond 3 to 5 days after infection and suggest that the T4SS may contribute to evasion of adaptive immune mechanisms by B. abortus.


arrow
INTRODUCTION
 
Brucella abortus is one of the causative agents of brucellosis, a chronic zoonotic infection characterized by bacterial persistence in the reticuloendothelial system (RES) of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. The chronic infection of the RES observed during human brucellosis can be studied in the murine model host. A signature-tagged transposon screen identified a type IV secretion system (T4SS) as an essential virulence factor for persistence in the murine RES (11). The T4SS is encoded by the virB locus on chromosome II of the B. abortus genome. Mutational inactivation of the T4SS reduces the ability of B. abortus to survive and/or replicate in human epithelial cell lines (HeLa cells), murine bone marrow-derived macrophages, and macrophage-like cell lines (3, 5, 8, 14, 29, 30), and similar phenotypes have been described for Brucella melitensis and Brucella suis virB mutants (7, 10, 16, 24). Within murine bone marrow-derived macrophages, B. abortus traffics to an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-like compartment, where it localizes to ER exit sites. In contrast, virB mutants fail to acquire ER markers (3, 4). These differences in cellular trafficking are reflected in the kinetics of bacterial growth and/or killing: whereas wild-type (wt) B. abortus is able to replicate in macrophages in vitro, virB mutant bacteria are eliminated within the first 24 h after infection (3, 29, 30).

These observations raise the question whether the T4SS is required for evasion of macrophage killing mechanisms in vivo. The role of the T4SS in evading two major macrophage killing mechanisms was recently addressed by comparing the ability of mice defective for production of reactive nitrogen intermediates (Nos2–/– mice) and reactive oxygen intermediates (gp91phox–/–mice) with their congenic wild-type mice to check growth of B. abortus and an isogenic virB mutant in the RES. This study showed that neither the inducible nitric oxide synthase nor NADPH oxidase was responsible for the severe in vivo growth defect of the virB mutant (30).

Since B. abortus virB mutants are 100-fold attenuated for intracellular growth within only 5 to 8 h of in vitro infection of macrophages, it seems reasonable to expect that, if bacteria entered macrophages at the onset of infection, then attenuation in vivo should manifest early during infection of mice as well. However, a recent screen of 672 Brucella melitensis signature-tagged transposon mutants for genes required for colonization of murine spleens 5 days after infection did not identify any transposon insertions in the virB locus (18). This result was somewhat puzzling, since screening of a smaller B. abortus signature-tagged mutant bank (178 mutants) in mice identified two insertions in the virB locus (11). One major difference in the design of the latter screen was the recovery of mutants from the spleen at 2 weeks and 8 weeks after infection. A possible interpretation of these in vivo data is that, unlike during in vitro growth in host cells, the T4SS is only required for bacterial growth in the RES at late times (>5 days) after infection. In order to address this question experimentally, we studied the kinetics of infection of a virB mutant in both wild-type and mutant mouse strains.


arrow
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 
Bacterial strains, media, and culture conditions. Bacterial strains used were Brucella abortus 2308 and its isogenic mutant, BA41 (11), which has an insertion of mTn5Km2 at nucleotide 1232 of the B. abortus virB locus (GenBank accession number AF226278). This insertion is located 59 bp downstream of the virB1 gene and is polar on the expression of downstream genes in the virB operon (31). Strains were cultured on tryptic soy agar (TSA; Difco/Becton-Dickinson, Sparks, MD) or in tryptic soy broth at 37°C on a rotary shaker. Bacterial inocula for infection of mice were cultured on TSA plus 5% blood (1). For cultures of strain BA41, kanamycin (Km) was added to the culture medium at 100 mg/liter. All work with live B. abortus was performed at biosafety level 3.

Infection of mice. C57BL/6, B6.129S7-Rag1tm1Mom (21) mice carrying a targeted knockout of the gene encoding recombination activating gene 1, B6.129S2-Cd4tm1Cgn (27) mice carrying a targeted knockout of the gene encoding CD4, B6.129S2, Igh-6tm1Mak (15) mice carrying a targeted knockout of the gene encoding immunoglobulin Mu chain, and B6.129S7-Ifngtm1Ts/J (6) mice carrying a targeted knockout of the gene encoding interferon gamma (IFN-{gamma}) were obtained from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME). B6 and B6.129-B2mtm1JaeN12 (33) mice carrying a targeted knockout of the gene encoding β2-microglobulin were obtained from Taconic Farms (Germantown, NY). Mice were held in microisolator cages with sterile bedding and water and irradiated feed in a biosafety level 3 facility. For infection experiments, groups of five knockout mice and five age-matched controls per time point were inoculated intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 0.1 ml of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing 5 x 105 to 10 x 105 CFU of B. abortus. At the appropriate time points, mice were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation, and the spleens were collected aseptically at necropsy. The spleens were homogenized in 3 ml of PBS, and serial dilutions of the homogenate were plated on TSA and TSA plus Km for enumeration of CFU. For mixed infection experiments, the log ratio was calculated as the geometric mean of CFU mutant/CFU wild type recovered from spleens. Experimental groups each contained five knockout mice and five age-matched controls from the same supplier, aged 6 to 10 weeks. All animal experiments were approved by the Texas A&M University Laboratory Animal Care and Use Committee or the UC Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and were conducted in accordance with institutional guidelines.

Confirmation of mutant mouse phenotypes. Flow cytometry analysis was used to confirm mutant phenotypes of β2m–/–, Cd4–/–, and Igh6–/– mice. Spleens from infected mice were homogenized in 3 ml PBS, and serial dilutions were plated on TSA or TSA plus Km to enumerate CFU. The remaining cells were labeled for analysis by flow cytometry. Briefly, after passing the cells through a 100-µm cell strainer and treating the samples with ACK buffer (0.15 M NH4Cl, 1.0 mM KHCO3, 0.1 mM Na2EDTA, pH 7.2) to lyse red blood cells, the cells were washed with PBS (Gibco) containing 1% bovine serum albumin (PBS-BSA). Portions of the splenocytes were stained at 4°C with the appropriate monoclonal antibodies (MAb): either fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated rat anti-mouse CD8a (Ly-2) MAb, FITC-conjugated rat anti-mouse CD45R/B220 MAb (Pharmingen, San Diego, CA), or FITC-conjugated rat anti-mouse CD4 (L3T4) MAb. The cells were washed with PBS-BSA and fixed with 4% formaldehyde for 1 h. Finally, samples were washed as before and resuspended in PBS-BSA. Flow cytometry analysis was performed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson, San Diego, CA), and data were collected for 10,000 cells/sample (data not shown). Mice that did not exhibit the expected phenotypes were eliminated from the data analysis.

Isolation of bone marrow-derived macrophages. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were isolated from C57BL/6, Igh6–/–, and Cd4–/– mice following standard protocols. Briefly, after aseptically obtaining femurs from the mice, the bone marrow cells were flushed out with 6 ml of cold RPMI medium 1690 (RPMI; Gibco, Rockville, MD). Cells were pelleted at 1,000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. The cells were resuspended in BMM medium (RPMI supplemented with 20% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, L-cell conditioned medium, 1 mM glutamine, 1% nonessential amino acids, and 1% antibiotic-antimycotic [Gibco, Rockville, MD]) and placed in petri dishes at 37°C in 5% CO2. At day 3 cells were fed by adding 10 ml of BMM medium and incubated for an additional 5 days in the presence of CO2. At day 7, the bone marrow-derived macrophages were harvested by removing the medium and adding cold PBS. Macrophages were centrifuged at 1,000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C, resuspended in RPMIsup (RPMI supplemented with 20% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 1 mM glutamine, and 1% nonessential amino acids), and counted for the infection assays.

Isolation of resident peritoneal macrophages. Resident peritoneal macrophages were isolated from C57BL/6, Igh6–/–, and Cd4–/– post mortem, following standard protocols. Briefly, peritoneal fluid was harvested after injecting the animal's abdomens with cold RPMI supplemented with heparin. After injection, the abdomen of the animal was massaged and the liquid was extracted from the peritoneal cavity. Fluids were centrifuged at 1,200 rpm for 10 min at 4°C, and the pellets were resuspended in RPMI supplemented with 20% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 1 mM glutamine, 1% nonessential amino acids, and 1% antibiotic-antimycotic (Gibco, Rockville, MD) and placed in petri dishes at 37°C in 5% CO2. After incubation for 3 h at 37°C under 5% CO2, nonadherent cells were removed from the petri dishes by aspiration, and the adherent macrophages were rinsed twice with PBS, counted, and plated in 24-well plates with fresh medium without antibiotic-antimycotic for subsequent infection.

Splenic adherent cells. Splenic cells were isolated from C57BL/6 and Igh6–/– mice by homogenizing spleens in 3 ml of RPMI supplemented with 20% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, 1 mM glutamine, 1% nonessential amino acids, and 1% antibiotic-antimycotic (Gibco, Rockville, MD). Cells were centrifuged at 1,000 rpm for 10 min at 4°C. The cells were resuspended in 10 ml of the above medium and placed in petri dishes at 37°C in 5% CO2 overnight. The nonadherent cells were removed from the petri dishes by aspiration, and the adherent cells were rinsed twice with PBS, counted, and plated in 24-well plates with fresh medium without antibiotic-antimycotic for subsequent infection.

Macrophage infection. For macrophage killing assays, 24-well microtiter plates were seeded with macrophages at a concentration of 2 x105 cells/well in 0.5 ml of RPMIsup and incubated overnight at 37°C in 5% CO2. The inocula were prepared by growing with shaking in tryptic soy broth for 24 h and then subsequent dilution in RPMIsup to a concentration of 4 x 107 CFU/ml. Approximately 2 x 107 bacteria in 0.5 ml of RPMIsup, containing B. abortus 2308 (wild type) or its isogenic virB mutant, were added to each well of macrophages. Three independent assays were performed with triplicate samples, and each experiment included control (C57BL/6) macrophages together with either Igh6–/– or Cd4–/– macrophages. Microtiter plates were centrifuged at 250 x g for 5 min at room temperature in order to synchronize infection. Cells were incubated for 20 min at 37°C in 5% CO2, and free bacteria were removed by three washes with PBS. RPMIsup plus 50 mg gentamicin per ml was added to the wells, and the cells were incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2. After 1 h, the RPMIsup plus 50 µg/ml gentamicin was replaced with medium containing 25 µg/ml gentamicin. Wells were sampled at time points between 1 and 48 h after infection by aspirating the medium, lysing the macrophages with 0.5 ml of 0.5% Tween 20, and rinsing each well with 0.5 ml of PBS. Viable bacteria were quantified by dilution in sterile PBS and plating on TSA and TSA plus Km. For macrophage infection with opsonized bacteria, Brucella abortus 2308 or the virB mutant was treated with a 1:4,000 dilution of naïve rabbit serum, anti-Brucella rabbit serum (Difco), or PBS (nonopsonized) for 1 h at 37°C, as described by Bellaire et al. (2). This dilution of both naïve and immune sera was confirmed by microscopy to be nonagglutinating for Brucella abortus. After opsonization, inocula were prepared and bone marrow-derived macrophages infected as described above.

Statistical analysis. For determination of statistical significance between experimental groups at an individual time point, either a Student's t test or analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the data after logarithmic conversion. A P value of <0.05 was considered significant.


arrow
RESULTS
 
Infection kinetics of the B. abortus wild type and virB mutant in mice. Determining the time point at which the virB mutant first begins to be eliminated from the spleen would give some insight into how the T4SS contributes to persistent infection by B. abortus. To this end, a mixed infection experiment was used to assess the level of colonization of both the wild type and the virB mutant in the same animals. In a previous study, the rate of clearance of BA41 (virB) from mouse spleens during mixed infection was found to be comparable to that observed when mice were inoculated individually with B. abortus BA41 (11). The results of this study showed that by 14 days postinoculation, approximately 10-fold more wild-type than mutant bacteria were recovered from splenic tissue in either mixed or individual infections, thereby validating the use of mixed infection for our current study.

To determine when the virB mutant begins to be cleared from splenic tissue, we performed a kinetic study of infection of BA41 compared to its isogenic wild-type strain 2308 (Fig. 1). To reproduce the experimental design of the original STM screens (11, 18), BALB/c mice were used. An inoculum consisting of 5 x 105 CFU containing a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus 2308, and BA41 (virB) was administered i.p. to the mice. Groups of five mice were sacrificed at the time points indicated for determination of splenic CFU. The results of this experiment showed that the CFU of the virB mutant recovered from the spleens was nearly identical to that of the wild type at 3 days postinfection (Fig. 1A). The mean log ratio of wild type to virB mutant in each mouse was also not significantly different from 1.0 until day 7 postinfection (Fig. 1B), suggesting that the virB mutant is initially able to colonize the spleen at levels similar to the wild type.


Figure 1
View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 1. Kinetics of bacterial load in the spleens of BALB/c ByJ mice following mixed infection with B. abortus 2308 (wt) and the virB mutant. Mice were inoculated i.p. with 5 x 105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of wt and the virB mutant. Data points represent the geometric means of CFU recovered from groups of five mice per time point ± the standard error. (A) Log CFU of wt and virB mutant. Asterisks denote significant differences (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU as determined with Student's t test. (B) Competitive index, calculated as the ratio of log CFU virB mutant/log CFU wild type.

Based on these results, we hypothesized that one possible explanation for the different observations obtained using in vivo and in vitro models could be that, in addition to its described effect on intracellular trafficking in macrophages, the T4SS may allow B. abortus to evade other components of immunity in vivo. To test this hypothesis, we screened a group of mutant mice to identify strains that allowed prolonged persistence of the virB mutant.

Since the clearance of the virB mutant from the spleens of the mice correlated with the development of adaptive immunity, we examined the ability of mice defective in components of adaptive immunity to eliminate the virB mutant. Many of these mutant mice are available on a C57BL/6 strain background but not on a BALB/c background. C57BL/6 mice have been described as more resistant to B. abortus infection than BALB/c mice (22); therefore, we repeated the initial experiment using C57BL/6 mice to determine whether the clearance of the virB mutant proceeded with similar kinetics in this mouse strain. In this experiment, we included additional time points to determine more precisely when mice start to clear the virB mutant. The results (Fig. 2A and B) showed that both the wild type and the virB mutant colonized C57BL/6 mice at similar levels during the first 24 h and that a significant difference (P < 0.05) between numbers of B. abortus 2308 and the virB mutant was first observed at 5 days postinfection. At days 14 and 21 postinfection, the recovery of the virB mutant was reduced by 2 (day 14) and 3 (day 21) orders of magnitude compared to the wild type. Thus, although the C57BL/6 mice cleared the virB mutant more rapidly between 7 and 21 days, the capacity of the virB mutant to colonize the spleen during the first few days of infection was similar in both mouse strains.


Figure 2
View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 2. Kinetics of bacterial load in the spleen following mixed infection of C57BL/6 mice with B. abortus 2308 (wt) and the virB mutant. Mice were inoculated i.p. with 5 x 105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of wt and virB mutant. Each data point represents the geometric mean of CFU recovered from groups of 10 mice per time point ± the standard error. For each time point, data are combined from two independent experiments, each containing five mice per time point. (A) Log CFU of wt and the virB mutant. Asterisks denote significant differences (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU as determined with Student's t test. (B) Competitive index, calculated as the ratio of log CFU virB mutant/log CFU wild type.

An IFN-{gamma} defect does not rescue the virB mutant. To learn how the T4SS mediates evasion of host immune mechanisms to initiate persistent infection, we first identified immune mechanisms required for clearance of the virB mutant from murine spleens. Toward this goal, knockout mice with specific defects in components of the immune response were used to identify mouse strains with a reduced ability to eliminate the virB mutant from the spleen. We hypothesized that identification of mouse mutations that can rescue the virB mutant, but do not permit increased replication of wild-type B. abortus, may pinpoint immune mechanisms that are circumvented by B. abortus using its T4SS.

One host response mechanism that has been shown to be elicited in mice by B. abortus infection during the time when numbers of the virB mutant start to decline is the production of IFN-{gamma} (9, 12). Since IFN-{gamma} production has been shown to be crucial for controlling B. abortus infection in mice (22, 32), we postulated that the Ifng–/– mice, which are unable to produce IFN-{gamma} (6), might be deficient in controlling replication of the virB mutant. To test this idea, we performed a mixed infection study in Ifng–/– mice (Fig. 3C) in parallel with C57BL/6 mice (Fig. 3A). Based on the infection kinetics determined in C57BL/6 mice, we chose 14- and 21-day time points for comparison of C57BL/6 and knockout mice, as the 2- and 3-log difference between CFU of the virB mutant and of the wild type recovered at these time points (Fig. 2A and B) would enable us to detect significant differences between control and knockout mice without the use of large groups of experimental animals.


Figure 3
View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 3. Recovery of the virB mutant and wild type from spleens of C57BL/6 mice (A and B) and Ifng–/– mice (C and D) after mixed infection. (A and C) Mean CFU of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus recovered from mice (n = 5). (B and D) Data points are expressed as competitive index (ratio log CFU mutant/log CFU wt) and represent the geometric mean of data from five mice ± the standard error. Each mouse was infected i.p. with 5 x105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus wild type and virB mutant. Graphs are representative of two independent experiments. Asterisks denote a significant difference (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU as determined with Student's t test. Asterisks in the lower panels (B and D) indicate a significant difference between geometric means of CFU recovered from congenic control mice and mutant mice at each time point. (See text for details.)

If IFN-{gamma}-activated macrophages controlled replication of the virB mutant in vivo, then we expected that the virB mutant would exhibit increased survival in the Ifng–/– mice. However, the virB mutant was recovered in lower numbers from the Ifng–/– mice than from C57BL/6 controls (Fig. 3A and C), suggesting that this is not the case. As has been observed previously (22), wild-type B. abortus was recovered in significantly higher numbers from the spleens of Ifng–/– mice than C57BL/6 mice at both 14 (P = 0.03) and 21 (P = 0.01) days postinfection. At days 1 and 21 postinfection, we observed no significant difference between the ratios of wild-type B. abortus to virB mutant in Ifng–/– mice and the C57BL/6 controls (Fig. 3B and D). On day 14, the Ifng–/– mice actually showed increased clearance of the virB mutant compared to the C57BL/6 mice (P < 0.05). Based on these results, we concluded that the Ifng–/– mice do not have a specific defect in elimination of the virB mutant.

Rag1–/– mice permit increased splenic persistence of a B. abortus virB mutant. To determine whether complete inactivation of adaptive immunity rescues the virB mutant, we compared the ability of Rag1–/– mice and the congenic C57BL/6 controls to clear the virB mutant after mixed infection. Rag1–/– mice are unable to generate functional B or T cells because of a defect in the recombinase-activating gene required for generating immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor molecules (21). The results (Fig. 4A and C) of this experiment showed that both C57BL/6 mice and Rag1–/– mice had lower bacterial loads of the virB mutant than wild-type B. abortus in the spleen at days 14 and 21. However, the ratio of BA41 (virB) to B. abortus 2308 (wild type) was higher in the Rag1–/– mice than in the C57BL/6 controls (Fig. 4B and D). The spleens of Rag1–/– mice contained a virB mutant/wt ratio of 1:22 in their spleens at day 21, whereas the C57BL/6 mice had a splenic virB mutant/wt ratio of 1:1,200, showing that Rag1–/– mice were deficient at clearing the virB mutant (Fig. 4B and D). Thus, the Rag1–/– mutation caused a partial rescue of the virB mutant in the mouse spleen without affecting recovery of wt B. abortus.


Figure 4
View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 4. Recovery of virB mutant and wild type from spleens of C57BL/6 mice (A and B) and Rag1–/– mice (C and D) after mixed infection. (A and C) Mean CFU of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus recovered from mice (n = 15). (B and D) Data points are expressed as competitive index (ratio log CFU mutant/log CFU wt) and represent the geometric mean of data from 15 mice ± the standard error. Each mouse was infected i.p. with 5 x105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus wild type and virB mutant. Data are combined from three independent experiments, and each group contained five mice per time point. Asterisks in the upper panels (A and C) denote a significant difference (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU, as determined with Student's t test. Asterisks in the lower panels (B and D) indicate significant differences between geometric means of CFU recovered from congenic control mice and mutant mice at each time point. (See text for details.)

CD4+ T cells and B cells, but not CD8+ T cells, contribute to controlling persistence of the virB mutant. Since Rag1–/– mice lack functional CD4+ T cells as well as CD8+ T cells and mature B cells, we tested whether mutant mice, in which individual genes required for CD4+ T-cell, CD8+ T-cell, or B-cell function are knocked out, are also more permissive for persistence of the B. abortus virB mutant. As with IFN-{gamma}, CD8+ T cells have been shown to be important for controlling B. abortus infection. Oliveira and Splitter reported that CD8+ T cells isolated from B. abortus-infected mice are able to kill macrophages infected in vitro with B. abortus vaccine strain 19 (26). We reasoned that in vivo, a defect in CD8+ T-cell function might rescue the virB mutant. To test this idea, we performed mixed infections of C57BL/6 mice and mice deficient in β2-microglobulin (β2m; a subunit of major histocompatibility complex [MHC] class I), which are unable to generate CD8+ cytotoxic T cells due to an inability to synthesize functional MHC class I protein (33). Figure 5A to D show that both the absolute numbers of the wild type and virB mutant and the ratio of virB mutant to wild-type B. abortus recovered from β2m–/– mice were similar at days 1, 14, and 21 postinfection. These results show that abrogation of CD8+ T-cell function in the β2m–/– mice does not increase the persistence in the spleen of the virB mutant. These results suggested that the T4SS does not mediate evasion of CD8+ T-cell-dependent immune functions.


Figure 5
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 5. Recovery of virB mutant and wild type from spleens of C57BL/6 mice (A and B) and β2m–/– mice (C and D) after mixed infection. (A and C) Mean CFU of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus recovered from mice (n = 5). (B and D) Data points are expressed as competitive index (ratio log CFU mutant/log CFU wt) and represent the geometric means of data from five mice ± the standard error. Each mouse was infected i.p. with 5 x105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus wild type and virB mutant. Asterisks in the upper panels denote a significant difference (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU, as determined with Student's t test. Geometric means of CFU recovered from congenic control mice and mutant mice did not differ significantly (P > 0.05).

To determine whether mice lacking CD4+ T cells can rescue the B. abortus virB mutant, we performed a mixed infection study using Cd4–/– mice (Fig. 6A to D). At day 1 postinfection, B. abortus 2308 and the virB mutant were recovered in equivalent numbers from both C57BL/6 mice and the Cd4–/– mice, showing that the T4SS defect in the virB mutant does not affect initial colonization of either mouse strain. At day 14 postinfection, the Cd4–/– mice had a higher ratio of virB mutant to wild type (1:5.7) in the spleens than did C57BL/6 mice (1:300). Further, at day 14 postinoculation, there were significantly more CFU of the virB mutant in the spleens of Cd4–/– mice than in the spleens of C57BL/6 mice (P < 0.001). Remarkably, at day 21, the CFU of the virB mutant in spleens of Cd4–/– mice were not significantly different from control mice, but CFU of the wild type were significantly lower (P = 0.01) in spleens of the Cd4–/– mice than in the spleens of C57BL/6 mice. Thus, the Cd4–/– mice reduced CFU of the virB mutant by 1.5 orders of magnitude during the first 21 days postinfection, while control mice reduced CFU of the mutant by 3.5 orders of magnitude (Fig. 6A to D).


Figure 6
View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 6. Recovery of virB mutant and wild type from spleens of C57BL/6 mice (A and B) and Cd4–/– mice (C and D) after mixed infection. (A and C) Mean CFU of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus recovered from mice (n = 5). (B and D) Data points are expressed as competitive index (ratio log CFU mutant/log CFU wt) and represent the geometric means of data from five mice ± the standard error. Each mouse was infected i.p. with 5 x105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus wild type and virB mutant. Asterisks in the upper panels (A and C) indicate a significant difference (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU as determined with Student's t test. Asterisks in the lower panels (B and D) denote significant differences between geometric means of CFU recovered from congenic control mice and mutant mice at each time point. (See text for details.)

The finding that the virB mutant was eliminated more slowly by the Cd4–/– mice than by C57BL/6 mice during competitive infection prompted us to determine whether this was also the case if mice were inoculated individually with the wild type or virB mutant (Fig. 7). As observed during mixed infections, the Cd4–/– mice harbored fewer CFU of B. abortus 2308 in the spleen than C57BL/6 mice at 14 and 21 days after infection (Fig. 7A). The virB mutant was recovered in similar numbers from C57BL/6 and Cd4–/– mice at day 14, and at day 21 recovery of the mutant from Cd4–/– mice was slightly higher than C57BL/6 mice; however, this difference was not significant (Fig. 7B).


Figure 7
View larger version (19K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 7. Recovery of B. abortus 2308 (A) and the virB mutant (B) from spleens of control, Igh6 –/–, and Cd4 –/– mice following inoculation with individual strains. Bars represent the geometric means ± standard errors of data from groups of five mice, except where indicated by §, for which n = 3. Statistical analysis between geometric means of the CFU of mutant and wild type recovered was performed using ANOVA. Asterisks denote significant differences ({alpha} = 0.05) between CFU recovered from mutant mice compared to C57BL/6 mice.

Both Rag1–/– mice and Cd4–/– mice are defective in B-cell function (21, 27). The lack of functional B cells in these mice may therefore contribute to the reduced ability of these mice to clear the virB mutant. To determine whether mice lacking B cells can clear the B. abortus virB mutant from mice, we performed a mixed infection study using Igh6–/– mice and control mice (Fig. 8A to D). Igh6 –/– mice are deficient in immunoglobulin M heavy chain, which is required for normal B-cell development (15). At days 14 and 21 postinfection, the Igh6–/– mice had a virB mutant to wild type ratio of 1:1.3 in the spleen, while the ratio in C57BL/6 mice was 1:213. Further, the recovery of the virB mutant from spleens of Igh6–/– mice at day 21 was significantly higher than the recovery from C57BL/6 mice (P < 0.01). A second experiment was performed, in which the wild type and virB mutant were administered individually to Igh6–/– mice (Fig. 7). The results of this experiment showed that the wild type was recovered from both Igh6–/– and control mice in similar numbers at 14 days postinoculation; however, at day 21, the Igh6–/– mice harbored lower levels of wild-type B. abortus in the spleen. The virB mutant was recovered in higher numbers than wild type at day 14 and day 21, but these differences were not significant. Taken together, the mixed and individual infection experiments revealed that the Igh6–/– mice were slightly better at controlling replication of wild-type B. abortus but were more permissive for persistence of the virB mutant. Since the Igh6–/– mice exhibited the most marked defect in clearing the virB mutant and no defect in clearing wt B. abortus, we chose this mouse strain for further characterization.


Figure 8
View larger version (17K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 8. Recovery of virB mutant and wild type from spleens of C57BL/6 mice (A and B) and Igh6–/– mice (C and D) after mixed infection. (A and C) Mean CFU of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus recovered from mice (n = 5). (B and D) Data points are expressed as competitive index (ratio log CFU mutant/log CFU wt) and represent the geometric mean of data from five mice ± the standard error. Each mouse was infected i.p. with 5 x105 CFU of a 1:1 mixture of B. abortus wild type and virB mutant. Asterisks in the upper panels (A and C) denote a significant difference (P < 0.05) between geometric means of virB mutant and wt CFU as determined with Student's t test. Asterisks in the lower panels (B and D) indicate a significant difference between geometric means of CFU recovered from congenic control mice and mutant mice at each time point. (See text for details.)

Macrophages isolated from Igh6–/– mice do not differ from control macrophages in their ability to control replication of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus. Since Igh6–/– mice permitted persistence of the virB mutant for a longer duration than control mice, we next asked the question whether the Igh6 mutation could have pleiotropic effects that reduce the ability of macrophages from these mice to control intracellular replication. Although Igh6–/– mice have been widely used to study B-cell-dependent responses to infection, no information is available on whether the Igh6–/– mutation affects macrophage function. However, given the central role of the macrophage as a site for replication and as an effector cell controlling Brucella replication, we considered this possibility. To this end, we compared the ability of macrophages derived from Igh6–/– knockout mice to limit intracellular replication of B. abortus 2308 or the virB mutant. For these experiments, a gentamicin protection assay was used to quantify replication of B. abortus in bone marrow-derived macrophages isolated from C57BL/6 mice and Igh6–/– mice (Fig. 9A and B). Each experiment was performed in parallel with macrophages from control and knockout mice. These results showed that wild-type B. abortus decreased in numbers until 24 h after inoculation and then exhibited a net increase in CFU between 24 and 48 h. In contrast, the virB mutant declined below the limit of detection by 24 h and remained undetectable thereafter. Bone marrow-derived macrophages isolated from C57BL/6 or Igh6–/– mice did not differ in their ability to control replication of either wild-type B. abortus or the virB mutant.


Figure 9
View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 9. Recovery of B. abortus 2308 or B. abortus virB mutant after infection of bone marrow-derived macrophages (M{Phi}) (A and B), resident peritoneal M{Phi} (C and D), and adherent splenocytes (E and F) isolated from C57BL/6 or Igh6–/– mice. Each graph represents the combined data of two or three independent experiments containing triplicate samples. Data points represent the means ± standard errors. No significant differences were observed in the ability of macrophages from C57BL/6 or Igh6–/– mice to control replication of B. abortus 2308 (A, C, and E) or the virB mutant (B, D, and F).

Based on these results, we examined whether other macrophage populations, namely, adherent splenocytes and resident peritoneal macrophages isolated from C57BL/6 mice and Igh6–/– mice, differed in their ability to limit replication of the virB mutant during the first 24 h after inoculation (Fig. 9C to F). In resident peritoneal macrophages from Igh6–/– or control mice, wild-type B. abortus was present in similar numbers at 1 h and 24 h postinoculation (Fig. 9C). In contrast, the virB mutant declined in numbers by 1 order of magnitude between 1 h and 24 h (Fig. 9D). In adherent splenocytes, wild-type B. abortus exhibited a net increase in numbers between 1 and 24 h (Fig. 9E), while CFU of the virB mutant decreased by approximately 1 order of magnitude (Fig. 9F). No differences were observed between cells isolated from C57BL/6 or Igh6–/– mice. Taken together, the results of these experiments showed that the Igh6–/– mutation did not affect the ability of macrophages to take up or kill either wild-type B. abortus or the virB mutant after in vitro infection (Fig. 9A to D). Similar results were obtained using bone marrow-derived or resident peritoneal macrophages isolated from Cd4–/– mice (data not shown). These results show that the increased in vivo persistence of the virB mutant in Igh6–/– mice does not correlate with an inherent defect in the ability of their macrophages to control intracellular replication of the virB mutant in vitro.

Killing of the B. abortus virB mutant by macrophages is not affected by the presence of Brucella-specific antibodies. One possible explanation for the increased persistence of the virB mutant in B-cell-deficient Igh6–/– mice could be that uptake of opsonized B. abortus via Fc receptors may lead to increased killing of the virB mutant by macrophages, compared to wild-type B. abortus, which has been shown to survive within macrophages after opsonophagocytosis (2). To test this possibility, we quantified the ability of bone marrow-derived macrophages to kill B. abortus 2308 or the virB mutant after opsonization with naïve or B. abortus-immune rabbit serum (Fig. 10). While opsonization with B. abortus-specific serum increased uptake of both wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus, resulting in 10-fold-greater bacterial numbers at 1 h postinfection, this difference was no longer evident at later time points: at 4, 8, 24, and 48 h, there was no significant difference between intracellular numbers of opsonized and nonopsonized bacteria.


Figure 10
View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 10. Recovery of B. abortus 2308 (A) or the B. abortus virB mutant (B) after opsonization of bacteria and infection of bone marrow-derived macrophages. Bacteria were either nonopsonized, opsonized with naïve rabbit serum, or opsonized with Brucella-specific rabbit serum. Each graph represents the combined data of two independent experiments containing triplicate samples. Data points represent the means ± standard deviations. Significant differences ({alpha} = 0.05) between samples were determined by ANOVA and are indicated with asterisks.


arrow
DISCUSSION
 
The results of this study demonstrate that the B. abortus T4SS is not required for initial colonization of mice after i.p. inoculation but is required for persistence beyond 3 days postinfection. In light of results from previous studies, in which Brucella localized to phagocytic cells in the spleens of mice (13, 20, 23), this result was surprising, because data obtained using infection of macrophages or macrophage cell lines cultivated in vitro showed a role for the T4SS in intracellular survival that was manifested as early as 4 to 8 h postinfection (Fig. 9). Our findings are in accordance with those from Lestrate et al., who did not identify any virB mutants in two different screens for B. melitensis signature-tagged mutants attenuated at 5 days postinfection (18, 19), as well as those of Rajashekara et al. (28), who showed that a B. melitensis virB mutant was able to disseminate from the site of injection, suggesting that in B. melitensis the T4SS is also not essential for initial colonization of mice. The infection kinetics of the virB mutant in C57BL/6 mice (a decrease in numbers 3 to 5 days after mixed infection [Fig. 2]) correlate with the timing of adaptive immune responses, as Brucella-specific IgM antibodies first appear at 3 to 5 days after infection (data not shown). We therefore hypothesized that the T4SS allows B. abortus to evade an immune mechanism that is activated in the mouse after the first 3 days of infection.

To test this hypothesis, we screened a group of mutant mouse strains deficient in different immune components to identify mutations that rescue the survival defect of the virB mutant. Since the virB mutant BA41 was originally identified based on its inability to persist during mixed infection with wild-type B. abortus, we had evidence that coinfection with wild-type B. abortus does not rescue the virB mutant, for example, by type IV secretion of bacterial proteins that may globally disarm the immune response. Further, in this study as in a previous study (11), we recovered 100- to 1,000-fold-fewer CFU of the virB mutant from mice between 14 and 21 days compared to wild-type B. abortus, irrespective of whether a mixed inoculum was administered or whether the virB mutant and wild type were administered separately to mice. Based on this phenotype, we reasoned that the immune mechanism that selectively clears the virB mutant must be able to act on virB mutant bacteria but not on wild-type bacteria in the same animal. If mice lacked a component of immunity involved in clearing the virB mutant, then the virB mutant would be expected to be recovered in higher numbers than from control mice after mixed infection. The results of these experiments showed that inactivation of specific immune mechanisms in mice led to different effects on the ability of the virB mutant and wt to persist in the spleen (Table 1), suggesting that different immune mechanisms may contribute to limiting persistence of wild-type B. abortus and strains lacking the T4SS.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 1. Effects of mouse mutations on persistence of wild-type and virB mutant B. abortus relative to responses in C57BL/6 mice

IFN-{gamma} production is elicited in B. abortus-infected mice and was shown to begin between 3 and 7 days postinfection (9), suggesting that in vivo, IFN-{gamma} might activate infected cells to kill the virB mutant selectively. However, our results (Fig. 3) show that the Ifng–/– mutation does not lead to a selective rescue of the virB mutant. These data are in agreement with our previous findings that clearance of virB mutants from mice is not dependent on inducible nitric oxide synthase or NADPH oxidase (30), which are elicited by IFN-{gamma}. Similarly, a β2m–/– mutation affecting CD8+ T-cell development also failed to rescue the virB mutant (Fig. 5).

In contrast, a Rag1–/– mutation increased the ability of the virB mutant to persist in the spleen (Fig. 4). Since Rag1–/– mice lack mature B and T cells, this result suggested that the T4SS may enable B. abortus to evade adaptive immunity mediated by these cell types. Rag1–/– mice have been reported to be defective in controlling infection with B. melitensis (13). However, although the Rag1–/– mice did not clear the virB mutant as well as C57BL/6 mice, at 14 and 21 days postinfection approximately 10-fold more of wild-type than virB mutant B. abortus was recovered from the spleens of the Rag1–/– mice. Thus, the Rag1–/– mice retained some ability to limit persistence of the virB mutant by mechanisms that do not depend on B and T cells.

Both Cd4–/– and Igh6–/– mice were less able to eliminate the virB mutant from the spleen than control mice after mixed infection (Fig. 6A to D and 8A to D). These results suggested that B cells and/or CD4+ T cells may be involved in clearance of the virB mutant. While it is tempting to speculate that the T4SS may enable B. abortus to evade immunity mediated by these cell types, an important consideration in the interpretation of these data is that the knockout mice used in this study may have additional defects or compensatory developmental changes in their immune systems that may affect their ability to clear the virB mutant. For example, CD4+ T-cell help is required for antibody responses, and Cd4–/– mice have been shown to generate an antibody response to a model antigen that was only 10% of that elicited in control mice (27). Conversely, B cells have been shown to play a role in CD4+ T helper cell function during murine malaria infection (17). Therefore, additional approaches will be required to narrow down the exact defects in these knockout mice that permit prolonged colonization with B. abortus strains defective in the T4SS. It should be noted that Cd4–/– mice were better able than control mice to control replication of wild-type B. abortus, which may be related to a lack of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells in the mutant mice.

An Igh6–/– mutation leading to an absence of B cells rescued the survival defect of the virB mutant. The decreased ability of Igh6–/– mice to limit persistence of the virB mutant did not appear to be the result of a reduced capacity of their macrophages to control intracellular replication of the virB mutant, as bone marrow-derived, splenic, or resident peritoneal macrophages isolated from these mice were indistinguishable from control mice in their ability to limit intracellular growth of the virB mutant in vitro (Fig. 9). Therefore, the inability of these mice to prevent persistence of the virB mutant appears to involve a defect that can only be modeled in vivo. The macrophage model has yielded important information on the function of the T4SS in the cell, namely, the subversion of intracellular trafficking to create the endoplasmic reticulum-associated replicative compartment (3, 4, 5). Thus, this function is also expected to be important for T4SS-mediated survival of Brucella in vivo.

One possible interpretation of our results was that wild-type B. abortus and the virB mutant may differ in their ability to survive in macrophages after Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis and that the absence of specific antibody in the Igh6–/– mice could render them more permissive for growth of the virB mutant. Since it has been shown that B. abortus 2308 opsonized with immune serum can survive and replicate in human monocytes (2), we tested this possibility and showed that in vitro, opsonization with immune serum did not affect intracellular survival of the virB mutant.

An alternative interpretation of our data is that additional immune components, such as cytokines or cell populations other than macrophages, may function during infection to modulate the ability of macrophages to clear the virB mutant. The former idea is supported by the finding that human V{gamma}9V{delta}2 T cells are able to limit intracellular growth of B. suis within autologous macrophages (25). Thus, one function of the T4SS may be to interfere with recognition of infected macrophages by other immune cells. A second possibility is that the virB mutant B. abortus may persist in the spleens of Igh6–/– and CD4–/– mice within a cell population that has a reduced ability to kill the virB mutant, or that the virB mutant may be present extracellularly. Location of bacteria in a different cell population or in an extracellular location may also explain why the T4SS is not required for survival in the spleen during the first 3 days after infection. Additional experiments will be required to distinguish between these different possibilities and to define the role of the T4SS in immune evasion in vivo. We anticipate that the results will give us further insights into how the T4SS enables B. abortus to cause persistent infection.


arrow
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank L. Garry Adams, Andreas Bäumler, Laura Hendrix, Jim Samuel, and Jon Skare for helpful discussions while this work was in progress.

NIH/NIAID award AI50553 to R.T. provided support for this study.


arrow
FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616. Phone: (530) 754-8497. Fax: (530) 754-7420. E-mail: rmtsolis{at}ucdavis.edu Back

{triangledown} Published ahead of print on 9 April 2007. Back

Editor: F. C. Fang


arrow
REFERENCES
 
    1
  1. Alton, G. G., L. M. Jones, and D. E. Pietz. 1975. Laboratory techniques in brucellosis, 2nd ed. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
    2. 2
  2. Bellaire, B. H., R. M. Roop II, and J. A. Cardelli. 2005. Opsonized virulent Brucella abortus replicates within nonacidic, endoplasmic reticulum-negative, LAMP-1-positive phagosomes in human monocytes. Infect. Immun. 73:3702-3713.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    3. 3
  3. Celli, J., C. de Chastellier, D. M. Franchini, J. Pizarro-Cerda, E. Moreno, and J. P. Gorvel. 2003. Brucella evades macrophage killing via VirB-dependent sustained interactions with the endoplasmic reticulum. J. Exp. Med. 198:545-556.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    4. 4
  4. Celli, J., S. P. Salcedo, and J. P. Gorvel. 2005. Brucella coopts the small GTPase Sar1 for intracellular replication. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:1673-1678.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    5. 5
  5. Comerci, D. J., M. J. Martinez-Lorenzo, R. Sieira, J. P. Gorvel, and R. A. Ugalde. 2001. Essential role of the VirB machinery in the maturation of the Brucella abortus-containing vacuole. Cell. Microbiol. 3:159-168.[CrossRef][Medline]
    6. 6
  6. Dalton, D. K., S. Pitts-Meek, S. Keshav, I. S. Figari, A. Bradley, and T. A. Stewart. 1993. Multiple defects of immune cell function in mice with disrupted interferon-{gamma} genes. Science 259:1739-1742.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    7. 7
  7. Delrue, R. M., M. Martinez-Lorenzo, P. Lestrate, I. Danese, V. Bielarz, P. Mertens, X. De Bolle, A. Tibor, J. P. Gorvel, and J. J. Letesson. 2001. Identification of Brucella spp. genes involved in intracellular trafficking. Cell. Microbiol. 3:487-497.[CrossRef][Medline]
    8. 8
  8. den Hartigh, A. B., Y.-H. Sun, D. Sondervan, N. Heuvelmans, M. O. Reinders, T. A. Ficht, and R. M. Tsolis. 2004. Differential requirements for VirB1 and VirB2 during Brucella abortus infection. Infect. Immun. 72:5143-5149.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    9. 9
  9. Fernandez-Lago, L., M. Monte, and A. Chordi. 1996. Endogenous gamma interferon and interleukin-10 in Brucella abortus 2308 infection in mice. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 15:109-114.[Medline]
    10. 10
  10. Foulongne, V., G. Bourg, C. Cazevieille, S. Michaux-Charachon, and D. O'Callaghan. 2000. Identification of Brucella suis genes affecting intracellular survival in an in vitro human macrophage infection model by signature-tagged transposon mutagenesis. Infect. Immun. 68:1297-1303.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    11. 11
  11. Hong, P. C., R. M. Tsolis, and T. A. Ficht. 2000. Identification of genes required for chronic persistence of Brucella abortus in mice. Infect. Immun. 68:4102-4107.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    12. 12
  12. Hort, G. M., J. Weisenburger, B. Borsdorf, C. Peters, M. Banai, H. Hahn, J. Jacob, and M. E. Mielke. 2003. Delayed type hypersensitivity-associated disruption of splenic periarteriolar lymphatic sheaths coincides with temporary loss of IFN-{gamma} production and impaired eradication of bacteria in Brucella abortus-infected mice. Microbes Infect. 5:95-106.[CrossRef][Medline]
    13. 13
  13. Izadjoo, M. J., Y. Polotsky, M. G. Mense, A. K. Bhattacharjee, C. M. Paranavitana, T. L. Hadfield, and D. L. Hoover. 2000. Impaired control of Brucella melitensis infection in Rag1-deficient mice. Infect. Immun. 68:5314-5320.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    14. 14
  14. Kim, S., M. Watarai, Y. Kondo, J. Erdenebaatar, S. Makino, and T. Shirahata. 2003. Isolation and characterization of mini-Tn5Km2 insertion mutants of Brucella abortus deficient in internalization and intracellular growth in HeLa cells. Infect. Immun. 71:3020-3027.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    15. 15
  15. Kitamura, D., J. Roes, R. Kuhn, and K. Rajewsky. 1991. A B cell-deficient mouse by targeted disruption of the membrane exon of the immunoglobulin mu chain gene. Nature 350:423-426.[CrossRef][Medline]
    16. 16
  16. Kohler, S., V. Foulongne, S. Ouahrani-Bettache, G. Bourg, J. Teyssier, M. Ramuz, and J. P. Liautard. 2002. The analysis of the intramacrophagic virulome of Brucella suis deciphers the environment encountered by the pathogen inside the macrophage host cell. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:15711-15716.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    17. 17
  17. Langhorne, J., C. Cross, E. Seixas, C. Li, and T. von der Weid. 1998. A role for B cells in the development of T cell helper function in a malaria infection in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:1730-1734.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    18. 18
  18. Lestrate, P., R. M. Delrue, I. Danese, C. Didembourg, B. Taminiau, P. Mertens, X. De Bolle, A. Tibor, C. M. Tang, and J. J. Letesson. 2000. Identification and characterization of in vivo attenuated mutants of Brucella melitensis. Mol. Microbiol. 38:543-551.[CrossRef][Medline]
    19. 19
  19. Lestrate, P., A. Dricot, R. M. Delrue, C. Lambert, V. Martinelli, X. De Bolle, J. J. Letesson, and A. Tibor. 2003. Attenuated signature-tagged mutagenesis mutants of Brucella melitensis identified during the acute phase of infection in mice. Infect. Immun. 71:7053-7060.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    20. 20
  20. Meador, V. P., L. B. Tabatabai, W. A. Hagemoser, and B. L. Deyoe. 1986. Identification of Brucella abortus in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues of cows, goats, and mice with an avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex immunoenzymatic staining technique. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47:2147-2150.[Medline]
    21. 21
  21. Mombaerts, P., J. Iacomini, R. S. Johnson, K. Herrup, S. Tonegawa, and V. E. Papaioannou. 1992. RAG-1-deficient mice have no mature B and T lymphocytes. Cell 68:869-877.[CrossRef][Medline]
    22. 22
  22. Murphy, E. A., J. Sathiyaseelan, M. A. Parent, B. Zou, and C. L. Baldwin. 2001. Interferon-gamma is crucial for surviving a Brucella abortus infection in both resistant C57BL/6 and susceptible BALB/c mice. Immunology 103:511-518.[CrossRef][Medline]
    23. 23
  23. Oberti, J., S. Sanchez, R. Caravano, and A. Loubatieres. 1975. Mise en evidence des antigenes brucelliens in situ dens les cellules du ganglion et de la rate de souris par la microscopie electronique. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 280:503-506.
    24. 24
  24. O'Callaghan, D., C. Cazevieille, A. Allardet-Servent, M. L. Boschiroli, G. Bourg, V. Foulongne, P. Frutos, Y. Kulakov, and M. Ramuz. 1999. A homologue of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB and Bordetella pertussis Ptl type IV secretion systems is essential for intracellular survival of Brucella suis. Mol. Microbiol. 33:1210-1220.[CrossRef][Medline]
    25. 25
  25. Oliaro, J., S. Dudal, J. Liautard, J. B. Andrault, J. P. Liautard, and V. Lafont. 2005. V{gamma}9V{delta}2 T cells use a combination of mechanisms to limit the spread of the pathogenic bacteria Brucella. J. Leukoc. Biol. 77:652-660.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    26. 26
  26. Oliveira, S. C., and G. A. Splitter. 1995. CD8+ type 1 CD44hi CD45 RBlo T lymphocytes control intracellular Brucella abortus infection as demonstrated in major histocompatibility complex class I- and class II-deficient mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 25:2551-2557.[Medline]
    27. 27
  27. Rahemtulla, A., W. P. Fung-Leung, M. W. Schilham, T. M. Kundig, S. R. Sambhara, A. Narendran, A. Arabian, A. Wakeham, C. J. Paige, R. M. Zinkernagel, et al. 1991. Normal development and function of CD8+ cells but markedly decreased helper cell activity in mice lacking CD4. Nature 353:180-184.[CrossRef][Medline]
    28. 28
  28. Rajashekara, G., D. A. Glover, M. Krepps, and G. A. Splitter. 2005. Temporal analysis of pathogenic events in virulent and avirulent Brucella melitensis infections. Cell. Microbiol. 7:1459-1473.[CrossRef][Medline]
    29. 29
  29. Sieira, R., D. J. Comerci, D. O. Sanchez, and R. A. Ugalde. 2000. A homologue of an operon required for DNA transfer in Agrobacterium is required in Brucella abortus for virulence and intracellular multiplication. J. Bacteriol. 182:4849-4855.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    30. 30
  30. Sun, Y. H., A. B. den Hartigh, R. L. Santos, L. G. Adams, and R. M. Tsolis. 2002. virB-mediated survival of Brucella abortus in mice and macrophages is independent of a functional inducible nitric oxide synthase or NADPH oxidase in macrophages. Infect. Immun. 70:4826-4832.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    31. 31
  31. Sun, Y. H., H. G. Rolan, A. B. den Hartigh, D. Sondervan, and R. M. Tsolis. 2005. Brucella abortus virB12 is expressed during infection but is not an essential component of the type IV secretion system. Infect. Immun. 73:6048-6054.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    32. 32
  32. Zhan, Y., and C. Cheers. 1993. Endogenous gamma interferon mediates resistance to Brucella abortus infection. Infect. Immun. 61:4899-4901.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    33. 33
  33. Zijlstra, M., M. Bix, N. E. Simister, J. M. Loring, D. H. Raulet, and R. Jaenisch. 1990. Beta 2-microglobulin deficient mice lack CD4-8+ cytolytic T cells. Nature 344:742-746.[CrossRef][Medline]

Infection and Immunity, June 2007, p. 2965-2973, Vol. 75, No. 6
0019-9567/07/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/IAI.01896-06
Copyright © 2007, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



This article has been cited by other articles:

  • Paixao, T. A., Roux, C. M., den Hartigh, A. B., Sankaran-Walters, S., Dandekar, S., Santos, R. L., Tsolis, R. M. (2009). Establishment of Systemic Brucella melitensis Infection through the Digestive Tract Requires Urease, the Type IV Secretion System, and Lipopolysaccharide O Antigen. Infect. Immun. 77: 4197-4208 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Rolan, H. G., Xavier, M. N., Santos, R. L., Tsolis, R. M. (2009). Natural Antibody Contributes to Host Defense against an Attenuated Brucella abortus virB Mutant. Infect. Immun. 77: 3004-3013 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Winter, S. E., Thiennimitr, P., Nuccio, S.-P., Haneda, T., Winter, M. G., Wilson, R. P., Russell, J. M., Henry, T., Tran, Q. T., Lawhon, S. D., Gomez, G., Bevins, C. L., Russmann, H., Monack, D. M., Adams, L. G., Baumler, A. J. (2009). Contribution of Flagellin Pattern Recognition to Intestinal Inflammation during Salmonella enterica Serotype Typhimurium Infection. Infect. Immun. 77: 1904-1916 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Rolan, H. G., Tsolis, R. M. (2008). Inactivation of the Type IV Secretion System Reduces the Th1 Polarization of the Immune Response to Brucella abortus Infection. Infect. Immun. 76: 3207-3213 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • den Hartigh, A. B., Rolan, H. G., de Jong, M. F., Tsolis, R. M. (2008). VirB3 to VirB6 and VirB8 to VirB11, but Not VirB7, Are Essential for Mediating Persistence of Brucella in the Reticuloendothelial System. J. Bacteriol. 190: 4427-4436 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Rolan, H. G., den Hartigh, A. B., Kahl-McDonagh, M., Ficht, T., Adams, L. G., Tsolis, R. M. (2008). VirB12 Is a Serological Marker of Brucella Infection in Experimental and Natural Hosts. CVI 15: 208-214 [Abstract] [Full Text]  

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Rolán, H. G.
Right arrow Articles by Tsolis, R. M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Rolán, H. G.
Right arrow Articles by Tsolis, R. M.

Copyright © 2009 by the American Society for Microbiology.   For an alternate route to Journals.ASM.org, visit: http://intl-journals.asm.org | More Info»