DifferentialRequirements for Soluble and Transmembrane Tumor Necrosis Factor in theImmunological Control of Primary and Secondary Listeria monocytogenesInfection

Animals.C57BL/6 mice that were 6 to 10 weeks old were purchased from the Animal Resource Centre (Perth, Australia). TNF-deficient mice (TNF^−/−) were generated by targeted disruption of TNF in C57BL/6 mice as previously described (15). memTNF mice, in which the gene expressing memTNF was placed into TNF^−/− mice, were generated at DNAX Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA (27). All mice were kept in specific-pathogen-free conditions at the Centenary Institute Animal Facility. All experiments were undertaken with the approval of the University of Sydney Animal Ethics Committee.

Experimental infection. L. monocytogenes strain EGD was prepared as previously described (24). WT, memTNF, and TNF^−/− mice were infected with Listeria intravenously via the lateral tail vain. At specified times, the numbers of viable bacteria in the spleen and liver were determined by plating serial dilutions of organ homogenates on tryptic soy agar (Difco, Detroit, MI) and incubating the preparations overnight. Heat-killed L. monocytogenes was prepared by incubating Listeria cells at 80°C for 2 h. For transfer experiments, TNF^−/− mice were irradiated with 500 rads prior to infection. Groups of mice were injected intravenously with 200 bacilli and 7.5 × 10⁶ purified T cells. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were cultured with 15% L929 supernatant for 6 days before overnight prestimulation with combinations of 200 U/ml gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and 10 ng/ml of lipopolysaccharide. Macrophages were infected for 1 h with Listeria at a multiplicity of infection of 1, they were washed, and bacterial loads were determined after 4 h of incubation.

Cytokine production and phenotypic analysis of cellular infiltration.Single-cell suspensions were prepared from mouse livers perfused with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing heparin (10 U/ml; Sigma, St. Louis, MO) and from splenocytes. Erythrocytes were lysed, and cells were suspended in RPMI medium (Cytosystem, Sydney, Australia) containing 10% fetal calf serum (Trace, Sydney, Australia), 2 mM l-glutamine, 0.5 μM 2-mercaptoethanol (Sigma), 100 U/ml penicillin (Trace), and 100μ g/ml streptomycin (CSL, Melbourne, Australia). Leukocytes were incubated on ice with anti-CD16/CD32 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, CA) and then stained with fluorescently labeled MAbs. In addition, some leukocytes were cultured overnight on anti-CD3 MAb-coated plates (BD Pharmingen) to which brefeldin A (Sigma) was added for the final 4 h; the surface markers were stained, and the cells were permeabilized for intracellular staining. The fluorescent MAbs used for phenotypic analysis with a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA) were CD4-allophycocyanin, CD8a-peridinin-chlorophyll protein (PerCP),CD8b.2-phycoerythrin, Gr-1-fluorescein isothiocyanate, Mac-1-allophycocyanin, NK1.1-phycoerythrin, CD62L-phycoerythrin (BD Pharmingen), IFN-γ-fluorescein isothiocyanate, and isotype controls (Caltag, Burlingame, CA). The percentage of apoptosis was determined by annexin-V staining (BD Pharmingen), performed according to the manufacturer's instructions. Splenocytes were cultured with heat-killed L. monocytogenes or medium (control) for 72 h. IFN-γ production in the culture supernatant was determined by a capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, as previously described (29).

T-cell purification.T cells were enriched from single-cell spleen suspensions by magnetic cell sorting with indirect microbeads (Miltenyi Biotec, Gladbach, Germany). Briefly, cells were incubated with a combination of phycoerythrin-conjugated anti-B220 and anti-major histocompatibility complex class II MAb, followed by anti-phycoerythrin microbeads, before negative selection using an autoMACs (Miltenyi Biotec). Purification was confirmed by staining for the leukocyte markers CD3, CD4, CD8, Mac-1, and B220, using fluorescently labeled antibodies (BD Pharmingen) and analysis with a FACSCalibur. This procedure resulted in acquisition of T-cell populations whose purity was greater than 93%.

RNA purification and RTQ-PCR.Liver tissue was homogenized in 1 ml RNAzol trireagent (Sigma) and stored at −70°C. Extraction of total RNA, RNA purification, reverse transcription, and real-time quantitative PCR (RTQ-PCR) were performed as previously described (29). Primers for all target genes (Table 1) were designed using the Primer Express 1.5 software (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) and were made by Proligo (Sydney, Australia). RTQ-PCR was performed with a PE Applied Biosystems model 7700 sequence detector. The identity and purity of the PCR product were confirmed by melting curve analysis. All data were analyzed using the PE Applied Systems Sequence Detector 1.7 software and were plotted as the increase in fluorescence intensity of the SYBR green reporter dye versus the cycle number. The threshold cycle number was used to quantify the target gene expression for each sample, using the comparative threshold cycle method. The results represented the expression of the target gene relative to the expression in WT uninfected mice.

Histology.Liver tissue samples were perfused and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin (Fronine, Sydney, Australia) and embedded in paraffin blocks, and 5-μm sections were cut. The sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for histopathological examination.

Immunofluorescence.Perfused liver tissue samples were snap frozen in optimal cutting temperature compound (Tissue-Tek, Sakura, Japan). Then 5-μm sections of the tissue were cut with a Cryostat (Microm, Walldorf, Germany), adhered to poly-l-lysine-coated (Sigma) slides, and fixed in acetone (BDH, Melbourne, Australia) for 10 min. The samples were rehydrated in PBS and then kept in a humidity chamber at 37°C, with two PBS washes between steps. Samples were blocked with 30% horse serum for 10 min before polyclonal rabbit anti-mouse inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (Upstate Biotech, Lake Placid, NY) was added for 30 min. Anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G-fluorescein isothiocyanate (Silenus, Melbourne, Australia) was added for 30 min, and then antifade mountant [0.3% 1,4-diazabicyclo(2,2,2)octan (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany), 90% glycerol (BDH)] was applied.

Statistical analysis.Statistical analyses of the results of immunological assays and log-transformed bacterial counts were conducted using analysis of variance (ANOVA) or Student's t test. Fisher's least protected significance difference post hoc test was used for pairwise comparison of multigroup data sets. Survival was calculated with a Kaplan-Meier nonparametric survival plot, and significance was assessed by the log rank Mantel-Cox test. A P value of <0.05 was considered significant.

Delayed bacterial clearance and increased mortality in memTNF mice following high-dose, but not low-dose, primary Listeria infection.In order to determine if transmembrane TNF alone is sufficient to induce protective immunity against a primary Listeria infection, WT, TNF^−/−, and memTNF mice were infected intravenously with a high dose of L. monocytogenes (2,000 CFU). The bacterial loads increased initially in the WT mice, peaking at days 3 to 5, before rapid clearance by day 10 (Fig. 1A and B). In contrast, TNF^−/− mice were unable to control the growth of Listeria; these mice became moribund (mean survival time, 4.5 days; P < 0.0001) (Fig. 1C), and the bacterial loads were 2 and 4 log₁₀ higher in the spleen and liver, respectively, by day 5 (P< 0.0001) (Fig. 1A and B). In memTNF mice, the bacterial growth initially resembled that in their WT counterparts. From day 4, however, the memTNF mice diverged into two phenotypes: those that were able to control and clear the Listeria infection, albeit with a significant delay (P < 0.02) compared to WT mice, and those that developed an overwhelming infection and became moribund between 4 and 8 days postinfection. This resulted in an overall mortality rate of 55% (P < 0.009) (Fig. 1C). The listerial burdens in moribund mice (7.5 log₁₀ in the spleen and 8.5 log₁₀ in the liver) were markedly increased and similar to those in TNF^−/− mice (7.5 log₁₀ and 9.0 log₁₀, respectively). When mice were infected with a 10-fold-lower dose of Listeria (200 CFU), WT and TNF^−/− mice responded with patterns similar to those observed with the higher dose. WT mice cleared the infection, while TNF^−/− mice became moribund (Fig. 1D). The majority of memTNF mice also survived a low-dose infection (Fig. 1D) and cleared the bacilli without the delay seen in memTNF mice given 2,000 CFU (data not shown).

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FIG. 1.

Delayed bacterial clearance and increased susceptibility of memTNF mice to Listeria infection. WT (▪), memTNF (⋄), and TNF^−/− (○) mice were infected with 2,000 (A to C) or 200 (D) CFU of Listeria intravenously. The bacterial loads in the spleen (A) and liver (B) were determined by serial dilution of organ homogenates at different times. The dotted line indicates the limit of detection. The data are the means and standard errors for five mice per group from one of three representative experiments. Significance was determined by ANOVA. An asterisk indicates that the P value was <0.02 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice, and a dagger indicates that the P value was <0.0001 for a comparison of TNF^−/− and WT mice. Additional groups of mice were monitored twice daily and euthanized if they displayed signs of declining health. (C) Time to euthanasia in three experiments following infection of WT (n = 19), memTNF (n = 19), and TNF^−/− (n = 11) mice with 2,000 CFU of Listeria. (D) Time to euthanasia in two experiments following infection of WT (n = 21), memTNF (n = 29), and TNF^−/− (n = 19) mice with 200 CFU of Listeria. Significance was determined by the log rank Mantel-Cox test. A double dagger indicates that the P value was <0.009 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice; a section sign indicates that the P value was<0.0001 for a comparison of TNF^−/− and WT mice; and a paragraph sign indicates that the P value was 0.0001 for a comparison of memTNF and TNF^−/− mice. ns, not significant.

Delayed accumulation of leukocytes in memTNF mice during primary Listeria infection.The primary site of Listeria infection is the liver. To determine if the increased susceptibility of the memTNF mice to a high-dose infection was due to alterations in the inflammatory response, the influx of leukocytes into the liver was measured throughout the course of infection. The numbers of macrophages and neutrophils increased in all groups by day 3 and peaked in WT and memTNF mice at day 7 (Fig. 2). In WT mice, despite the early development of small inflammatory foci (described below), the total numbers of leukocytes did not increase significantly until day 5, when they rapidly expanded, reaching a peak at day 7 before decreasing (Fig. 2). Leukocyte recruitment to the livers of memTNF mice, however, was delayed (P< 0.04 at day 7), and the population did not reach the maximal size until day 14, 1 week after the peak of infection. These differences were largely due to a delay in the recruitment of T cells into the liver. In WT mice, the number of CD4⁺ T cells rose sharply after day 5 and remained elevated from day 7 to day 28, while the number of CD8⁺ T cells increased greatly beginning on day 5, peaked at day 10, and fell to preinfection levels by day 14. In contrast, the maximal increases in the numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in memTNF mice did not occur until days 10 to 14 (Fig. 2 and 3). At day 7, significantly fewer T cells were isolated from the livers of memTNF mice than from the livers of WT mice (for CD4⁺ T cells, P < 0.002; for CD8⁺ T cells, P < 0.03). Despite the differences in the total numbers of T cells isolated from the liver, the percentages of T cells that were positive for the apoptotic marker annexin-V were not significantly different between the WT and memTNF mice (Table 2).

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FIG. 2.

Delayed influx of T cells in livers of infected memTNF mice. WT (▪) and memTNF (⋄) mice were infected with 2,000 CFU of Listeria intravenously. Livers were perfused, and single-cell suspensions were prepared from uninfected and infected mice at different times. Leukocytes were enumerated, stained for CD4, CD8, Gr-1, Mac-1, and NK1.1, and analyzed by flow cytometry. The data are the means and standard errors for five mice per group from one of two representative experiments. Significance was determined at day 7 by Student's t test. An asterisk indicates that the P value was <0.04 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice.

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FIG. 3.

T-lymphocyte activation and IFN-γ secretion in spleens and livers of infected memTNF mice. WT (▪) and memTNF (⋄) mice were infected with 2,000 CFU of Listeria intravenously. (A and B) Single-cell suspensions were prepared from splenocytes and leukocytes from perfused livers of uninfected and infected mice at different times. Leukocytes were enumerated, stained for coexpression of CD4 or CD8 and surface CD62L (A) or intracellular IFN-γ (B), and detected using flow cytometry. (C) Splenocytes were cultured for 72 h with heat-killed L. monocytogenes or medium alone, and IFN-γ production was measured in the culture supernatant by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The data are the means and standard errors for five mice per group from one of two representative experiments. Significance for the spleen values was determined by ANOVA, and an asterisk indicates that the P value was<0.05 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice. Significance for the liver values at day 7 was determined by Student's t test, and a dagger indicates that the P value was <0.03 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice.

Delayed T-cell responses in memTNF mice during listerial infection.Both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells contribute to protective antilisterial immunity. The numbers of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the spleens and livers of infected WT mice increased rapidly beginning on day 5. These cells displayed the activated phenotypes CD62L^lo (Fig. 3A) and CD44^hi (data not shown). Elevated numbers of activated CD4⁺ T cells were still detectable in the liver at day 28, but the numbers had declined to preinfection levels in the spleen by day 14. The recruitment of activated CD4⁺ T cells to the livers of memTNF mice was delayed to day 10 (P < 0.02) and then followed the pattern of the WT response. CD4⁺ T-cell activation was significantly delayed in the spleens of memTNF mice (at day 7, P < 0.003). Furthermore, the numbers of activated CD8⁺ T cells, which are required for protection against Listeria infection, peaked at day 10 in the livers of both memTNF and WT mice and then declined to preinfection levels in WT mice but remained elevated in memTNF mice at 28 days postinfection. In the spleen, the numbers of activated CD8⁺ T cells peaked between days 7 and 10 in both WT and memTNF mice.

IFN-γ production is the hallmark of an activated Th1 response. In the spleens of both WT and memTNF mice, the peak number of IFN-γ-producing T cells occurred by day 7 (Fig. 3B), although beginning on day 5, cultures of spleen cells, which contained similar numbers of T cells, from the two strains of mice produced similar levels of IFN-γ in response to heat-killed L. monocytogenes (Fig. 3C). Examination of the livers showed that while in WT mice the number of IFN-γ-secreting CD4⁺ T cells had risen beginning on day 5 and remained elevated, in memTNF mice the expansion of this population was delayed to day 7 postinfection (P< 0.0004 at day 7). Infiltration of IFN-γ-secreting CD8⁺ T cells was comparable in the livers and spleens of WT and memTNF mice.

Enhanced and prolonged macrophage activation in memTNF mice.Activation of macrophage antibacterial functions is a key requirement for successful elimination of the invading pathogen. It has previously been demonstrated that the enzymes iNOS and LRG-47 are crucial for the development of protective immunity against Listeria (4, 17). The mRNA expression in the livers of WT and memTNF Listeria-infected mice revealed that the levels of both iNOS and LRG-47 increased in WT and memTNF mice by 3 days postinfection and remained elevated in memTNF mice but not in WT mice at day 7 (Fig. 4). Staining for iNOS expression in the liver demonstrated that in WT mouse livers, iNOS expression was confined to a few discrete foci at day 3 and that there was slight enlargement by day 7 (Fig. 5A and B). However, iNOS was present throughout several larger lesions in memTNF mice at day 3 and remained prevalent in larger regions of tissue at day 7 (Fig. 5C and D). In vitro killing assays demonstrated that IFN-γ-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages from memTNF mice were as effective as WT macrophages in killing Listeria (for WT mouse macrophages, 36.3% killing compared to unstimulated macrophages; for memTNF mouse macrophages, 35.0% killing compared to unstimulated macrophages).

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FIG. 4.

Enhanced macrophage activation in livers of infected memTNF mice. WT (black bars) and memTNF (gray bars) mice were infected with 2,000 CFU of Listeria intravenously. mRNA expression in the livers from uninfected mice and infected mice was measured by RTQ-PCR to determine the relative (rel.) expression of LRG-47 and iNOS. The data are the means and standard errors for five mice per group from one of two representative experiments. Significance was determined by ANOVA. An asterisk indicates that the P value was <0.05 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice.

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FIG. 5.

Increased inflammation, necrosis, and iNOS expression in memTNF mice. WT, memTNF, and TNF^−/− mice were infected with 2,000 CFU of L. monocytogenes intravenously. The photographs show typical sections from one of five mice in two representative experiments. (A to D) Perfused liver sections were frozen in optimal cutting temperature compound, and 5-μm sections were stained for iNOS expression and examined at a magnification of ×200. (A and B) WT livers on day 3 (A) and day 7 (B). (C and D) memTNF livers on day 3 (C) and day 7 (D). (E to L) Perfused liver sections were fixed in neutral buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. (E, G, I, and K) Magnification, ×25. (F and H) Magnification, ×400. (J and L) Magnification, ×200. (E and F) WT mice 5 days postinfection. (E) Inflammatory foci, scattered throughout the tissue, were mostly discrete and localized and consisted of tightly apposed mononuclear cells. Several necrotic lesions also were evident. (F) The necrotic lesions mostly consisted of a central core of degraded tissue surrounded by neutrophils and mononuclear cells. (G and H) TNF^−/− mice 5 days postinfection. (G) Overwhelming hepatic destruction with intense inflammatory involvement was observed throughout the preparation. Darkly staining neutrophils appeared to radiate out from a central region of tissue degradation through the remaining viable liver. (H) High-power view of the interface (arrow in panel G) revealed disintegrated tissue, which was surrounded by cellular debris and pyknotic matter. (I and J) Nonmoribund memTNF mice 5 days postinfection. (I) Inflammatory foci mostly consisted of mononuclear leukocytes and neutrophils, but they were more frequent, larger, less organized, and less compact in memTNF mice than in their WT counterparts. Most necrotic lesions comprised a small area of purulent matter circumscribed by neutrophils and mononuclear cells. Other necrotic lesions consisted of a central core of degraded cells, predominantly neutrophils, surrounded by a region of disintegrated tissue, which was in turn encircled by inflammatory cells. (J) Enlargement (arrow in panel I) showing a central core of dying inflammatory cells and hepatocytes surrounded by completely necrotized tissue and a thin outer layer of leukocytes. (K and L) Moribund memTNF mice 5 days postinfection. (K) Rampant cellular infiltration and hepatic destruction. Darkly staining collections of cells, scattered throughout the tissue, were composed primarily of apoptotic bodies, neutrophils, and necrotic matter. (L) Enlargement of a section (arrow in panel K) showing areas of complete tissue destruction apparent throughout the preparation.

Increased cellular inflammation and necrosis in livers of memTNF mice.The livers of Listeria-infected WT mice contained small discrete inflammatory foci, in addition to the occasional (<one lesion/section) small necrotic lesion at day 5 (Fig. 5E). The foci were predominantly composed of tight aggregates of macrophages and lymphocytes, with the occasional necrotic lesion containing primarily neutrophils, circumscribing the area of necrosis (Fig. 5F). The number and size of inflammatory foci were greatest at day 5, and the lesions progressively cleared throughout the course of infection (data not shown). By day 14, only very occasional small cellular foci were still evident, and the rest of the liver appeared normal. In contrast, in the livers of infected TNF^−/− mice there were large areas of cellular infiltration and extensive tissue destruction, and neutrophils were the dominant cell type (Fig. 5G and H). Analysis at a higher magnification revealed that the cells at the circumference of necrosis were heavily infected with coccobacilli (data not shown).

In contrast to the distinct pathological phenotypes of infected WT and TNF^−/− mice, memTNF mice infected with 2,000 CFU of Listeria exhibited a spectrum of pathologies, particularly at day 5. Mice that appeared to be healthy exhibited an immunological response similar to that of the WT mice but showed increased pathology. The livers contained increased numbers of small compact foci per section, along with more frequent larger necrotic lesions (Fig. 5I and J). In addition, mice that appeared to be physically moribund (with ruffled fur, reduced mobility, and weight loss) showed liver pathology similar to that of the TNF^−/− mice (Fig. 5K and L). The memTNF mice that survived the early infection proceeded to clear the bacilli, and there was a progressive reduction in inflammatory lesions. Overall, clearance of the inflammatory foci was delayed in the memTNF mice compared with the WT mice, and larger numbers of inflammatory foci were still evident in memTNF mouse livers at 14 days postinfection (data not shown).

memTNF mice that received a low dose of Listeria also showed increased inflammatory responses in the liver, even though there was no delay in the clearance of bacteria. The inflammatory response in WT mice peaked at 5 to 7 days postinfection and was resolved by day 10. In TNF^−/− mice, extensive necrosis occurred in low-dose infections, as well as in high-dose infections (data not shown). The inflammatory response in the memTNF mice resembled that in the livers of memTNF mice that survived a high-dose infection. The inflammatory foci were discrete and localized but more extensive than those in WT mice. Moreover, the inflammatory response resolved more slowly in the memTNF mice than in the WT mice, and there were increased numbers of inflammatory foci in the liver at 10 days postinfection (data not shown).

Enhanced and prolonged expression of chemokine mRNA in memTNF mice.In order to determine whether the differences in accumulation of leukocytes observed in the Listeria-infected livers were due to altered chemokine expression, mRNAs for the monocyte/lymphocyte-attracting chemokines CCL3 and CCL4 and the neutrophil attractant CXCL1 were examined. Early neutrophil recruitment is essential for optimal protective immunity against Listeria infection (5), so initially we examined the response in the liver after only 24 h of infection. At this time, WT mice expressed 3-fold more CXCL1 mRNA than memTNF mice expressed (for WT mice, 15.56-fold increase compared with uninfected mice [range, 7.9- to 19.3-fold]; for memTNF mice, 5.48-fold increase [range, 4.3- to 6.3-fold]), although there was no early increase in CCL3 expression (for WT mice, 0.51-fold increase; for memTNF mice, 1.3-fold increase). We also examined expression of the chemokines CXCL1, CCL3, and CCL4 over the course of the listerial infection (Fig. 6). Expression of these three chemokines was elevated in all three strains of mice at day 3 and returned to the basal levels by day 7 in only the WT mice. In the memTNF mice, mRNA expression remained elevated at day 7 and did not return to the basal levels until day 14.

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FIG. 6.

Enhanced and prolonged chemokine production in livers of infected memTNF mice. WT (▪), memTNF (⋄), and TNF^−/− (○) mice were infected with 2,000 CFU of Listeria intravenously. mRNA expression in livers was measured by RTQ-PCR to determine the relative expression of the chemokines CCL3, CCL4, and CXCL1. The data are the means for five mice per group from one of two representative experiments. The significance of differences at day 7 was determined by Student's t test. An asterisk indicates that the P value was <0.04 for a comparison of memTNF and WT mice.

T cells from immune memTNF mice protect against secondary Listeria infection.To determine whether memTNF is sufficient for the development and expression of memory responses, WT and memTNF mice were infected with 200 CFU of Listeria and 8 weeks later challenged with 10⁵Listeria CFU/mouse. This dose was lethal for both WT and memTNF naïve mice, which had highly elevated bacterial loads at day 3 (Fig. 7) and succumbed to infection between days 2 and 4 (Fig. 8A). Both WT and memTNF mice which had previously cleared a low-dose infection controlled this otherwise lethal infection; there were 4-log₁₀-fewer bacteria the liver and spleen at day 3 than in naïve mice (Fig. 7), and the level of survival was 100% (Fig. 8A). Furthermore, we examined the rate of proliferation of immune T cells from both WT and memTNF mice following restimulation. T cells from immune mice were purified, labeled with carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester, and transferred into WT and memTNF naïve recipients, which were then challenged with a lethal dose of Listeria. There was no difference in the patterns of migration or rates of proliferation of immune T cells from WT and memTNF mice (data not shown). At 72 h postinfection, we found that immune T cells from both strains of mice had preferentially migrated to the liver, and CD8⁺ T cells in the liver were the only cells that underwent more than one round of division (data not shown).

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FIG. 7.

Transmembrane TNF is sufficient to control bacterial growth following a secondary challenge with a lethal dose of Listeria. WT (black bars) and memTNF (gray bars) mice were infected with 200 CFU of Listeria intravenously. Eight weeks after the initial infection, naïve and immune mice were infected with 10⁵ CFU of Listeria. The bacterial loads in the spleen (A) and liver (B) were determined at 3 and 5 days postinfection. The dotted line indicates the limit of detection. The data are the means and standard errors for five mice per group from one of two representative experiments.

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FIG. 8.

Protection against secondary Listeria infection does not require soluble TNF. (A) WT and memTNF mice were infected with 200 CFU of Listeria intravenously, and 8 weeks after the initial infection, naïve and immune mice were infected with 10⁵ CFU of Listeria. The data are the time to euthanasia for between 8 and 10 mice/group. Significance was determined by the log rank Mantel-Cox test. The asterisk indicates that the P value was <0.001 for a comparison of immune and naïve mice. (B) WT and memTNF mice were infected with 200 CFU of Listeria intravenously, and 14 days later, single-spleen-cell suspensions were prepared from immune and naïve mice, and T cells were isolated by negative selection (CD3⁺, >90%). Two hundred colony-forming units of Listeria and 5 × 10⁶ purified T cells were injected intravenously into TNF^−/− mice that had been irradiated 24 h previously with 500 rads. The data are the time to euthanasia for 11 to 15 mice/group. Significance was determined by the log rank Mantel-Cox test. The dagger indicates that the P value was <0.002 for comparisons of WT immune and WT naïve mice and memTNF immune and memTNF naïvemice.

T cells from immune memTNF mice transfer protection to TNF-deficient mice.Finally, we examined the role of memTNF expressed on T cells in conferring protection to TNF^−/− mice. T cells from naïve or immune mice that had been infected with 200 CFU of Listeria 14 days previously were transferred into TNF^−/− recipients at the time of challenge with 200 CFU of Listeria. TNF^−/− mice that received naïve T cells from either WT or memTNF mice succumbed to infection after 4 to 5 days (Fig. 8B), whereas over 70% of TNF^−/− mice that received immune T cells from either WT or memTNF mice survived infection. When these mice were culled 28 days after infection, they had completely eradicated the bacterial infection, their livers were normal, with no discernible inflammation remaining, and they exhibited strong antigen-specific IFN-γ responses (data not shown).